6. Referências Bibliográficas
ANZALONE, Christopher. United States Supreme Court. Supreme Court Cases on Gender and Sexual Equality 1787-2001. First Ed. M E Sharpe Inc Press.
ARKES, Hadley. Natural Rights and the Right to Choose. First Ed. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Baer, Judith. Goldstein, Leslie. The Constitutional and Legal Rights of Women: Cases in Law and Social Change. Third Ed. Oxford University Press.
DUGGAL, Ravi. The Political Economy of Abortion in India: Cost and Expenditure Patterns. In: Reproductive Health Matters Vol. 12, No. 24, Supplement: Abortion Law, Policy and Practice in Transition (Nov., 2004), pp. 130-137. Acesso em: 19 mar. 2013.
ERFANI, Amir. MCQUILLAN, Kevin. Rates of Induced Abortion in Iran: The Roles of Contraceptive Use and Religiosity. In: Studies in Family Planning Vol. 39, No. 2. (Jun., 2008), pp. 111-122. Acesso em: 21 mar. 2013.
FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Shaping Abortion Discourse: Democracy and the Public Sphere in Germany and the United States (Communication, Society and Politics). First Ed. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
HESSINI, Leila. Abortion and Islam: Policies and Practice in the Middle East and North Africa. In: Reproductive Health Matters Vol. 15, No. 29, (May, 2007), pp. 75-84. Acesso em: 24 mar. 2013.
Índia. (1971) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. Disponível em: <https://www.rajswasthya.nic.in/PCPNDT%2005.12.08/(11)/MTP%20Act%201971%20(7).pdf >. Acesso em 22 de março de 2012.
MERSKY, Roy. HARTMAN, Gary. A Documentary History of the Legal Aspects of Abortion in the United States: Roe V. Wade. First Ed. Published by: Fred B Rothman & Co July 1993
P. DAVID, Henry. FLEISCHHACKER, Jochen. HOHN, Charlotte. Abortion and Eugenics in Nazi Germany In: Population and Development Review Vol. 14, No. 1. (Mar., 1988), pp. 81-112. Acesso em: 22 mar. 2013.
SHAIKH, Sa'diyya. Sacred Choices: The Case for Contraception and Abortion in World Religions. First ed. Oxford University Press, 2003.
TAN, Michael Lim. Fetal Discourses and the Politics of the Womb In: Reproductive Health Matters Vol. 12, No. 24, Supplement: Abortion Law, Policy and Practice in Transition (Nov., 2004), pp. 157-166. Acesso em: 19 mar. 2013.
Notas
1 De acordo com uma pesquisa feita pela Pew Center em 2012, mais de 73% da população americana é formada por cristãos. Para mais detalhes, veja: https://www.pewforum.org/Unaffiliated/nones-on-the-rise.aspx
2 Do inglês: “Life begins when the infant is first able to stir in the womb. By the law, life is protected not only from immediate destruction, but from every degree of actual violence, and, in some cases, from every degree of danger.”
3 ARKES, Hadley. Natural Rights and the Right to Choose, p. 139.
4 Vale ressaltar que o nome Jane Roe oficialmente citados no processo é falso. Tal fato decorreu de uma tentativa de proteger a imagem da pessoa envolvida no processo. Tdavia, a própria divulgou seu nome verdadeiro após o processo ter sido julgado. O verdadeiro nome de Jane Roe é Norma McCorvey.
5 Henry Wade é o nome do District Attorney da cidade de Dallas. Este, que age como uma espécie de promotor municipal, ocupa o cargo responsável por representar esta cidade em casos judiciais.
6 Originalmente do inglês: “A pregnant single woman (Roe) brought a class action challenging the constitutionality of the Texas criminal abortion laws, which proscribe procuring or attempting an abortion except on medical advice for the purpose of saving the mother's life.”
7 MERSKY, Roy. HARTMAN, Gary. A Documentary History of the Legal Aspects of Abortion in the United States: Roe V. Wade, p. 113.
8 Originalmente em inglês: “right of privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the district court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy."
9 Anzalone, Christopher. United States Supreme Court. Supreme Court Cases on Gender and Sexual Equality 1787-2001, p. 308.
10 Do inglês: “Viability is usually placed at about seven months (28 weeks) but may occur earlier, even at 24 weeks.”
11 Baer, Judith. Goldstein, Leslie. The Constitutional and Legal Rights of Women: Cases in Law and Social Change, p. 345.
12 Para ver um mapa que retrata como cada estado americano aborda o financiamento público do aborto, veja: https://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/map.pdf
13 Podemos citar como exemplo factual o caso do estado do Colorado. Neste estado, por três vezes plebiscitos relacionados ao aborto chegaram à votação. Uma em 2008 e outras em 2010 e em 2011. Em todas as vezes as emendas foram derrotadas. Em 2008, por uma margem de 46,42%, em 2010 por 41,06% e em 2011, em uma votação mais apertada, por uma margem de 15,74%. Para ver o resultado dos plebiscitos na íntegra, veja: (2008) https://data.denverpost.com/election/results/amendment/2008/48-definition-of-person/
(2010) https://durangoherald.com/article/20101104/NEWS01/711049993/0/s/Colo-voters-reject-ballot-initiatives
(2011) https://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/files/elections/2011/by_county/MS_Page_1108.html?SITE=AP&SECTION=POLITICS
14 Resultados mais detalhados desta pesquisa podem ser encontrados aqui: https://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/MSNBC/Sections/A_Politics/_Today_Stories_Teases/Supreme-court-question.pdf
15 Do inglês: “The legal starting point began with the formation of Germany as a state in 1871. In its criminal code, §218 defined abortion as a felony punishable with five years imprisionment”
16 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Shaping Abortion Discourse: Democracy and the Public Sphere in Germany and the United States (Communication, Society and Politics), p. 26.
17 No que discerne à legalização do aborto ou, pelo menos, ao abrandamento das leis que o regulam, os movimentos feministas quase sempre tiveram uma posição eminente. Entretanto, em alguns países, estes movimentos não tiveram uma proeminência muito exarcebada no que discerne à legalização do aborto. Um destes casos é o indiano, o qual faremos uma minuciosa análise mais adiante.
18 Do inglês: “Abortion became a public issue by the late nineteenth century with the efforts of social reformers (e.g. socialists, feminists, and liberals) to put birth control and population control issues on the political agenda. By the turn of the century, this had blossomed into a broad challenge that included lessening or removing restrictions on abortion.”.
19 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Op. Cit., p. 26.
20 Do inglês: “Nazi abortion law sharply distinguished between life that was worthy of life and ‘unworthy lives’ (lebensunwertes Leben), forbidding abortion in the former but demanding it in the latter case.”
21 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Op. Cit., p. 27.
22 Do inglês:“[...]steadily declined – from 1033 in 1955 to 276 in 1969. Most women received light sentences.”
23 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Op. Cit., p. 28.
24 Do inglês: “A woman with a unwanted pregnancy can decide to have an abortion in the first trimester[...]”
25 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Op. Cit., p. 3.
26 Do inglês: “[...] access to abortion is relatively simple after a short waiting period.”
27 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Op. Cit., p. 3.
28 Do inglês: “[...] she is required to have counseling designed to encourage her to have the child”.
29 FERREE, Myra Marx. GAMSON, William Anthony. GERHARDS, Jürgen. RUCHT, Dieter. Op. Cit., p. 3.
30 Justificamos tal ação devido à importante posição do Irã na geopolítica do mundo atual.
31 Do Inglês: “From this perspective, the abortion of a formed fetus i.e. after 120 days, is considered a criminal offense and prohibited by all Islamic legal schools. Exceptions to this prohibition however include situations where the mother's life was in danger, where the pregnancy is harming an already suckling child, or where the fetus is expected to be deformed.”
32 SHAIKH, Sa'diyya. Sacred Choices: The Case for Contraception and Abortion in World Religions, p. 4.
33 Do inglês We created the human being from a quintessence of Clay/Then we/Placed him as semen in a firm receptacle/Then we formed the semen into a blood-like clot /Then we formed the clot into a lump of flesh /Then we made out of that lump, bones/And clothed the bones with flesh /Then we developed out of it another creation /So Blessed is Allah the Best Creator (Q 23:12- 14).
34 Do inglês: “He creates you in the wombs of your mothers /In stages, one after another /In three veils of darkness/Such is Allah, your Lord and Cherisher (Q 39:6)”.
35 Do inglês: “Relating to an abortion prior to the 120-day period, there are 4 different positions in classical Islamic[...]. The first position states that there must be unconditional permission to terminate a pregnancy without a justification or fetal defect. This view is adopted by the Zaydi school, and some Hanafi and Shafi'i scholars. The Hanbali school allows abortion through the use of oral abortifacients within 40 days of conception. The second position supports a conditional permission to abort. That is because of an acceptable justification must be made in order to pregnancy be legally terminated . If there is an abortion without a valid reason in this period its is considered to be disapproved, but not forbidden. This is the opinion of the majority of Hanafi and Shafi'i scholars . The third position states that abortion is strongly disapproved. This is the view held by some Maliki jurists . The fourth position states that abortion is unconditionally prohibited. This reflects the other Maliki view, as well as the Zahiri, Ibadiyya and Imamiyya legal schools.”.
36 SHAIKH, Sa'diyya. Op. Cit., p. 4.
37 Do inglês: “Such diversity in perspectives characterizes the Islamic legal canon, which contains contrary positions where both permissibility and prohibition of abortion are considered legitimate. This range of positions suggests a flexibility to the way in which Muslim societies have historically approached the issue of abortion.”.
38 SHAIKH, Sa'diyya. Op. Cit., p. 4.
39 Do inglês: “In Iran, abortion was allowed under certain circumstances in the early 20th century and a law was passed in 1977 allowing abortion on request. This law was overturned after the Islamic Revolution in 1979”.
40 HESSINI, Leila. Abortion and Islam: Policies andPractice in the Middle East and North Africa, p. 80.
41 Do inglês: “After the Revolution, the abortion law was altered again, and abortion was defined as a criminal offense, with penalties for providers of the procedure. It was permitted only to save the mother’s life, and even then only if gestation was of less than four months’ duration”.
42 ERFANI, Amir. MCQUILLAN, Kevin. Rates of Induced Abortion in Iran: The Roles of Contraceptive Use and Religiosity, p. 112.
43 Do inglês: “The Iranian Parliament approved a law allowing for abortion for fetal impairment and risk to the woman’s life, but the law was subsequently rejected by the Islamic Guardian Council”
44 HESSINI, Leila. Op. Cit., p. 80.
45 Do inglês: “In Iran, such complications are a significant cause of maternal mortality, estimated to be responsible for 5 percent of maternal deaths (Naghavi, 1996).”
46 ERFANI, Amir. MCQUILLAN, Kevin. Op. Cit., p. 111.
47 Pelo menos aos olhos de um observador estrangeiro.
48 Apesar de tal fato ocorrer, é nítido o movimento de parte da doutrina e do próprio governo indiano em busca de uma unificação do direito familiar na Índia.
49 Do inglês: “(2) [This Act] extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.”
50 Índia. (1971) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. Disponível em: <https://www.rajswasthya.nic.in/PCPNDT%2005.12.08/(11)/MTP%20Act%201971%20(7).pdf >. Acesso em 22 de março de 2012.
51 Do inglês: “[...] 11 million abortions take place annually and around 20,000 women die every year due to abortion related complications”.
52 Para mais, veja: https://web.archive.org/web/20081120105036/https://www.aiims.edu//aiims/events/Gynaewebsite/ma_finalsite/introduction.html
53 Na Índia, o modo tradicional de praticar o aborto consiste no procedimento realizado pelas parteiras tradicionais
54 Do inglês: “Criminalisation threatened traditional dispensation; however, given that regulation of medical practice was grossly wanting, abortion services continued to thrive during this period. Hence, it was not a priority for feminists and women’s organisations to struggle for legal abortion, as elsewhere in the world”
55 DUGGAL, Ravi. The Political Economy of Abortion in India: Cost and Expenditure Patterns, p. 131.
56 Do inglês: “The Indian government, in its tenacious pursuit of population control, adopted abortion as one more method of fertility control and legalised abortion under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act in 1971.”
57 DUGGAL, Ravi. Op. Cit., p. 131.
58 Do inglês: “2. [...] (2) [...] A pregnancy may be terminated by a registered medical practitioner:
(a) where the length of the pregnancy does not exceed twelve weeks if such medical practitioner is, or
(b) where the length of the pregnancy exceeds twelve weeks but does not exceed twenty weeks, if not less than two registered medical practitioners are.
(c) Of opinion, formed in good faith, that:
(i) the continuance of the pregnancy would involve a risk to the life of the pregnant woman or of grave injury physical or mental health; or
(ii) there is a substantial risk that if the child were born, it would suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped.”.
59 Índia. (1971) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. Disponível em: <https://www.rajswasthya.nic.in/PCPNDT%2005.12.08/(11)/MTP%20Act%201971%20(7).pdf >. Acesso em 22 de março de 2012.
60 Do inglês: “4. Place where pregnancy may be terminated.-No termination of pregnancy shall be made in accordance with this Act at any place other than,- (a) a hospital established or maintained by Government, or (b) a place for the time being approved for the purpose of this Act by Government”.
61 Índia. (1971) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. Disponível em: <https://www.rajswasthya.nic.in/PCPNDT%2005.12.08/(11)/MTP%20Act%201971%20(7).pdf >. Acesso em 22 de março de 2012.
62 Vale lembrar que tal regulação feita por códigos também ocorria com o antigo entendimento dado pelo código penal indiano de 1860.
63 Do inglês: “legal abortion services began to expand but did not significantly threaten traditional abortion providers”.
64 DUGGAL, Ravi. Op. Cit., p. 131.
65 A grande maioria destas instituições eram ONG’s, como a Family Planning Association of India (FPAI), além de outras.
66 Do inglês: “[...] if they make abortion provision dependent on acceptance of sterelisation or the IUD”.
67 DUGGAL, Ravi. Op. Cit., p. 131.
68 Do inglês: “Traditional abortion methods have been marginalised and traditional providers, if they have not stopped practising altogether, have either adopted more modern methods or become agents of modern abortion providers [...]”.
69 DUGGAL, Ravi. Op. Cit., p. 132.
70 A existência, na Índia, de códigos como estes são claras influências do sistema romano-germânico.
71 Do inglês: “(2) [This Act] extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.”
72 Índia. (1971) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. Disponível em: <https://www.rajswasthya.nic.in/PCPNDT%2005.12.08/(11)/MTP%20Act%201971%20(7).pdf >. Acesso em 22 de março de 2012.
Abstract: On this paper, the author intends to convey to the readers comparative aspects regarding how each legal system deals with abortion. We will not analyze if abortion should be legalized or not, but we mean to make a comparative study regarding other legal systems. We will not be restricted to just one legal system, but to every kind of legal system existing nowadays. These are: Civil law, Common law, Islamic law and the legal systems with a mixed jurisdiction. We shall also analyze the reasons given by these legal systems to treat abortion the way they do. In the end, we will make some remarks, summarizing everything discussed on this paper.
Key words: Abortion; Comparative Law; Alien Legal Systems