CONCLUSÃO

1) A história do Direito e da Justiça da Rússia pode ser dividida em três períodos distintos: a) czarista, b) socialista e c) federativo;

2) No primeiro período os juízes eram considerados meros funcionários do czar, tendo fracassado a tentativa de Mikhail Speranski (no começo do séc. XIX) de adaptar a legislação russa, inclusive a referente à Justiça, ao padrão napoleônico, enquanto que o Direito era resultado da vontade mais ou menos esclarecida do czar;

3) No segundo período, com a ideologia predominante, os juízes continuavam a não ser um Poder, mas sim funcionários eleitos, subordinados ao Partido Comunista, colocados no mesmo nivel dos demais trabalhadores, até porque havia uma sutil intenção de dar menor valor aos intelectuais, justamente por serem considerados mais difíceis de serem contrlados pelos governantes, enquanto que o Direito era reflexo da vontade do Soviete Supremo, órgão de cúpula do Partido Comunista;

4) Somente no terceiro período passaram a ser um Poder, após a edição da Constituição de 1993, também ocidentalizando-se cada vez mais o Direito, obediente às normas supranacionais do Conselho da Europa;

5) O ingresso da Rússia no Conselho da Europa em 1998 foi um dos passos mais importantes para o seu Judiciário e seu Direito, pois, a partir daí, procurou padronizar suas estruturas e ideologia pelos referenciais dessa comunidade internacional;

6) O Poder Judiciário atual está se modernizando rapidamente, sob a orientação de juristas franceses e canadenses, através da cooperação desses dois países, e procurando se adequar às regras do Conselho da Europa, que analisa os projetos de lei antes de sua votação pelo Legislativo russo, o mesmo se dizendo do seu Direito em geral;

7) Para a modernização completa do Poder Judiciário da Rússia e avanço maior do seu Direito seria interessante seu ingresso na União Européia, mas parece que isso não acontecerá a curto prazo.

NOTAS

(1)

MAJOR STAGES OF REPRESENTATIVE (LEGISLATIVE) POWER HISTORY IN RUSSIA AND ESTABLISHING OF THE COUNCIL OF FEDERATION

Understanding of the people's representation role and place in the political system of modern Russia would be difficult without a thorough study of the centuries-old history of legislative institutions - from veche and Boyar duma up to pre-Revolution State Dumas and State Council, the Soviets and modern forms of parliamentary democracy.

Veche was the form of people's direct participation in state affairs. It was the assembly of all free citizens. Every issue of state life could be a matter of discussion. Questions concerning invitation and exile of princes, start of military campaigns and signing peace treaties were discussed most often. In a greater part of the Russian lands veche assemblies were not held after the Tatar-Mongol invasion. In the north-west of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk) veches played very important role and existed for a longer period of time, because these lands were not ravaged by Tatar-Mongol warriors. Yet, after these territories became part of the Moscow czardom, veches began to die away there as well.

Prince's dumas functioned in all Russian lands. They were permanent councils, each attached to a particular prince, consisting of his closest companions-in-arms. As a rule, a prince never started any important business without having consulted his boyars. Representatives of clergy participated in prince's dumas quite often, still their participation was not permanent.

The Boyar duma was a successor of prince's dumas in the new historical surrounding of the Moscow csardom. No governor could rule without a duma, Ivan the Terrible included.

The Boyar duma was not independent. It always acted in conference with the czar, as united higher authority. This unity was most evident in legislation and international affairs. The following form of pronouncing a decision was very common: " The czar have orded and the boyars condemn..." or "According to the czar's order, the boyars condemned..."

The Boyar duma functioned till the end of the XVII century and was later reorganized into the Senate.

Zemsky sobors, that played an important role in legislation, were among most distinguished affairs of the Moscow czardom political life in the XVI-XVII centuries. Zemsky sobor of the XVII century consisted of two parts: one included higher authority and clergy representatives, members of the Boyar duma and heads of departments, the other assembled elective representatives from all estates.

Zemsky sobors enjoyed wide powers regarding election of the czar in emergency cases, international affairs, taxation, interstate security and even military orders in case of enemy invasion.

In the times of Alexey Mikhailovich Zemsky sobors played a significant role in working out and systematizing of laws. It is no coincidence, that the code of laws dating back to 1649 was given the name of Sobornoe Ulojenie.

In 1653 the last Zemsky sobor was held. Since then representatives of all the people were have not been assembled any more. Yet, the government invited delegates from the estate concerned, when discussing issues that could affect its interests. These delegates formed a kind of "expert commission".

The governing Senate, established in 1711, acquired special importance in the times of Peter I. This institution was in charge of all most significant issues concerning governance, prosecution and current legislation. The Senate, founded by Peter I, had very little in common with the Senates of Sweden, Poland or other countries. The Senate received broad authority as it was supposed "to act for His Imperial Majesty's own person" during his recent departures, depriving him of current affairs.

The Senate did not in any way limit the power of Peter I, for it acted on the czar's orders only and reported to the czar directly. Under Peter's successors the Senate's role became less important, first of all - in legislative sphere. In 1802 Alexander I finally deprived the Senate of its legislative and consultative status and entrusted these functions to the State Council.

The State Council, founded in 1801, became the highest legislative and consultative institution of the Russian Empire in 1810. Every law should be discussed in the State Council before being introduced to the Emperor for approval.

The czar appointed higher officials members of the State Council until 1906. Ministers became members of the State Council ex officio. From 1812 to 1865 Chairman of the State Council was simultaneously Chairman of the Cabinet.

The State Council contributed a lot to the preparation and publishing of the first Complete Edition of Laws and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (33 volumes of the Complete Edition and 15 - of the Code of Laws were published by 1833). Under the rule of Alexander II the State Council actively participated in working out the law basis for reforms of the 60-ies and 70-ies.

In 1906 Nicolay II established two-chamber system of higher legislative authority. The State Duma became the lower, and the State Council - the upper chamber of the Russian Parliament.

After 1906 the State Council worked as half-representative institution. Chairman, vice-chairman and one half of the Council's members were appointed by the Emperor, the other half - elected among representatives of clergy, nobility, zemstvo, the Academy of Sciences and university professors, largest trade and industrial associations.

The State Duma and the State Council had equal legislative power. The Emperor was offered to consider only those bills, which had already got the approval of both chambers.

Since 1913-1914 Nicolay II and the czar government have practically seized cooperation with legislative chambers.

After the February Revolution neither the State Duma nor the State Council renewed their activity. February of 1917 was the end of brief history of parliamentary traditions in Russia in the beginning of XX century.

The February and October Revolutions introduced a new system of representative power - the Soviets.

The Supreme Soviet of the USSR was the highest state authority of the USSR in charge of most important issues concerning state-construction, economy, social and cultural spheres, foreign policy, highest control on state apparatus' activities. According to the Constitution, the Supreme Soviet had the power to elect the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, to form the Government and the Supreme Court of the USSR, to appoint Prosecutor-General of the USSR. The Supreme Soviet could form inquiry and revision committees on any problem.

The Supreme Soviet was elected for 4 years by general, equal and direct vote of all citizens of the country. Every citizen of the USSR over 23 years old could be elected as deputy.

The Supreme Soviet of the USSR consisted of two chambers with equal rights - the Council of Union and Council of Nationalities. The Council of Union was elected according to the following pattern: one deputy from each 300 thousands of the population. The Council of Nationalities consisted of 32 deputies elected from each republic of the Union, 11 - from each autonomous republic, 5 - from each national district and 1 - from each national area.

Both chambers enjoyed the right of legislative initiative. Their sessions were held simultaneously. The matter was examined by the Conciliation Commission formed on equal footing by both chambers in case of contradiction between the chambers.

Each chamber had its permanent commissions: on mandates, on legislative propositions, on planning and budget, on foreign affairs, on youth problems, on issues concerning certain branches and groups of branches of economy, on state management.

Legislative activity of the Supreme Soviet was carried out by adopting the laws or by approving the Resolutions of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, passed between sessions.

Presidium of the Supreme Soviet had wide authority to make amendments and addenda to the acting Code of Laws, including laws of the USSR and Basic Laws of the Union and Union Republics. Resolutions of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet on general normative issues were approved on sessions of the Supreme Soviet, which were held twice a year.

The bills were voted separately in both chambers. A bill was considered as passed, if simple majority of votes was given for it in each chamber (for approving of amendments to the Constitution a qualified majority of not less than 2/3 of votes in each chamber was needed). The ruling core of all state authority, including the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, was the Communist Party. The Party raised tasks defined the functions of each Soviet, the Supreme Soviet included.

The Supreme Soviet's functioning demonstrated that the Soviet's activity combined the sprouts of democracy, which afforded to keep tense linkage between deputies and their electorate, promote parliamentary culture, contribute to the development and improvement of legislative system on one hand, and formal bureaucratic style of decision-making, that was a consequence of party-political approach to all spheres of state life, legislation included, on the other hand.

After Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR concerning leading and directing role of the CPSU had been revocated, the Soviets of all levels became more active. Work of the Congresses of the People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR was most fruitful. Only in 1990 more than 150 bills laying down the basis for market reforms, lawfully confirming the right to private property, introducing new forms of property and economic activity and confirming their equality, promoting competition environment, were passed. The institution of presidency and the Constitutional Court were established.

The statute of the Council of Federation was adopted by the Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR on January 30, 1991. The Council of Federation became a consultative and coordination body consisting of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (Chairman of the Council of Federation), Chairmen of the Supreme Soviets of the Republics, autonomous regions and districts, areas, regions, the Moscow and Leningrad City Councils.

The Council of Federation of the RSFSR held its sessions twice (on November 22, 1990 and January 23, 1991) and made a certain contribution to the preparation of the Federal Treaty.

After the Constitutional reform of late 1993 the institutions of Soviet power seized their work both in Moscow (the Congress, the Supreme Soviet) and in most subjects of Federation.

The procedure of formation of the Council of Federation by election held according to the majoritary system was defined by Presidential Decrees N1626 from October 11, 1993 "On Elections to the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" and N 1846 from November 6, 1993 "On Specification to the Resolution on Elections of Deputies to the State Duma and Resolution on Elections of Deputies to the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation in 1993".

The Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted on December 12, 1993 confirmed the status of two-chamber parliament, status of the Council of Federation included.

The Resolution on election to the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the first convocation provided, that two deputies from each subject of the Federation should enter the Council. Deputies to the upper chamber were elected in accordance with majoritary system from two-mandate electoral districts, which were formed within the borders of the subjects of Federation (one electoral district on the territory of each subject of Federation). Candidates to the Council of Federation were proposed by groups of constituents or by electoral associations.

There were 494 candidates to the Council of Federation registered. The election to the Council of Federation of the first convocation was held on December 12, 1993. There were 171 people elected. On March 13, 1994 election to the Council of Federation was held in Tatarstan and on May 15, 1994 it was followed by election in Chelyabinsk district. After these elections 4 more deputies joined the Council of Federation. Total number of deputies elected to the Council of Federation reached 175 people.

According to the Transition Resolutions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, members of the Council of Federation of the first convocation exercised their powers on non-permanent basis.

The first Chairman of the Council of Federation, elected on January 14, 1994, was Vladimir F.Shumeiko. During the two years of work (1994-1995) the Council of Federation of the first convocation held 32 sessions and passed 173 resolutions on issues under its jurisdiction.

In the end of 1995 the Federal Treaty "On Procedure of Forming of the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" was adopted. According to the Treaty, the Council of Federation consisted of two representatives from each subject of Federation: the heads of legislative (representative) and executive bodies of state authorities ex officio.

The Council of Federation of the second convocation assumed its powers on January 23, 1996. On its first session, held the same day, Egor S.Stroev, Head of Orel District Administration, was elected as Chairman of the Council of Federation.

In the period of 1996-2001 the Council of Federation of the second convocation held 47 sessions and passed 2843 resolutions.

The main result achieved by the Council of Federation in the period of 1996-2000 was that it practically established itself as "the chamber of regions" - a true guarantor of political stability in the country.

In those years the Council of Federation came out with initiatives of distinguished international arrangements several times. Among such arrangements is the Annual Economic Forum held in St. Petersburg. The Forum was started in the summer of 1997. It was attended by parliamentary delegations and leaders of states from all over the world, former republics of the USSR included, as well as by businessmen, bankers, financiers and public men.

The Baikal Economic Forum took place in September 2000 under the eagis of the Council of Federation, next year it was followed up by International Conference "The Baikal - World's Heritage: Economy and Ecology".

New Federal Law "On Procedure of Forming of the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" came into force on August 8, 2000.

One of the main reasons for changing the procedure of forming of the Council of Federation was the necessity to make the Council work on permanent basis.

According to the new law, representatives of executive bodies of state authorities from each subject of the Russian Federation are appointed to the Council of Federation by higher officials of the subjects of Federation (leaders of higher executive bodies of state authorities of the subjects of Federation) for the term of office.

Members of the Council of Federation, as representatives of the higher state authority in the subjects of Federation, are elected by legislative (representative) body of state authority of the subjects of Federation for the term of commission of the above mentioned body or the term of commission of once elected deputies of that body, if legislative (representative) authority of the subject of Federation is formed according to the rotation principle.

Since in some subjects of the Russian Federation, such as the Republic of Bashkortostan, the Kabardin-Balkar Republic, the Republic of Saha (Yakutia) and the Sverdlovsk region, two-chamber legislative (representative) bodies of state authority have been formed, the new law provided that representatives from the above mentioned bodies should be elected in tern from each chamber for half a term of the chamber's commission.

Before the Resolution on election (appointment) of new members to the Council of Federation has come into force in accordance with the new Federal Law, acting members of the Council of Federation, representing subjects of Federation ex officio, were obliged to continue their work.

On December 5, 2001 Sergey M. Mironov, representing the Legislation Assembly of St. Petersburg in the Council of Federation, was elected Chairman of the Council. The renewed Council of Federation of the third convocation assumed its powers on January 16, 2001.

On January 30, 2002 the Council of Federation adopted its new Regulations based on three major principles formulated by the Council's Chairman S. M. Mironov: precise depicting of the Council's powers, preserving of succession of activities, evolution of the chamber's structure towards the State Duma committees' structure.

According to the new Regulations, 16 committees (on constitutional legislation; on legal and law issues; on budget; on financial markets and money circulation; on foreign affairs; on Commonwealth of Independent States issues; on Federation and regional policy issues; on local self-governance; on social policy; on economic policy, business and property; on industrial policy; on natural resources and environment protection; on agrarian and food policy; on science, culture, education, healthcare and ecology; on issues, relating to the Northern territories and national minorities) and 7 permanent commissions (on time limits and procedure of the parliamentary powers implementation; on control over ensuring of the Parliament's activities; on methods of implementation of the Council of Federation constitutional powers; on cooperation with the Account Chamber of the Russian Federation; on youth issues and sport; on information policy; on natural monopolies committees) were established within the Council of Federation.

The main goals of the Council of Federation, according to Chairman S. M. Mironov's words, are "to strengthen federative model of the legal state self-determination of Russia, the unity of its political, social-economic and cultural space".

(2)

CONSTITUTION (FUNDAMENTAL LAW) OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Adopted at the Seventh (Special) Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR

Ninth Convocation On October 7, 1977

Chapter 20: COURTS AND ARBITRATION

Article 151. In the USSR justice is administered only by the courts.

In the USSR there are the following courts: the Supreme Court of the USSR, the Supreme Courts of Union Republics, the Supreme Courts of Autonomous Republics, Territorial, Regional, and city courts, courts of Autonomous Regions, courts of Autonomous Areas, district (city) people's courts, and military tribunals in the Armed Forces.

Article 152. All courts in the USSR shall be formed on the principle of the electiveness of judges and people's assessors.

People's judges of district (city) people's courts shall be elected for a term of five years by the citizens of the district (city) on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. People's assessors of district (city) people's courts shall be elected for a term of two and a half years at meetings of citizens at their places of work or residence by a show of hands.

Higher courts shall be elected for a term of five years by the corresponding Soviet of People's Deputies.

The judges of military tribunals shall be elected for a term of five years by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and by people's assessors for a term of two and a half years by meetings of servicemen.

Judges and people's assessors are responsible and accountable to their electors or the bodies that elected them, shall report to them, and may be recalled by them in the manner prescribed by law.

Article 153. The Supreme Court of the USSR is the highest judicial body in the USSR and supervises the administration of justice by the courts of the USSR and Union Republics within the limits established by law.

The Supreme Court of the USSR shall be elected by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and shall consist of a Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, members, and people's assessors. The Chairmen of the Supreme Courts of Union Republics are ex officio members of the Supreme Court of the USSR.

The organisation and procedure of the Supreme Court of the USSR are defined in the Law on the Supreme Court of the USSR.

Article 154. The hearing of civil and criminal cases in all courts is collegial; in courts of first instance cases are heard with the participation of people's assessors. In the administration of justice people's assessors have all the rights of a judge.

Article 155. Judges and people's assessors are independent and subject only to the law.

Article 156. Justice is administered in the USSR on the principle of the equality of citizens before the law and the court.

Article 157. Proceedings in all courts shall be open to the public. Hearings in camera are only allowed in cases provided for by law, with observance of all the rule of judicial procedure.

Article 158. A defendant in a criminal action is guaranteed the right to legal assistance.

Article 159. Judicial proceedings shall be conducted in the language of the Union Republic, Autonomous Republic, Autonomous Region, or Autonomous Area, or in the language spoken by the majority of the people in the locality. Persons participating in court proceedings, who do not know the language in which they are being conducted, shall be ensured the right to become fully acquainted with the materials in the case; the services of an interpreter during the proceedings; and the right to address the court in their own language.

Article 160. No one may be adjudged guilty of a crime and subjected to punishment as a criminal except by the sentence of a court and in conformity with the law.

Article 161. Colleges of advocates are available to give legal assistance to citizens and organisations. In cases provided for by legislation citizens shall be given legal assistance free of charge.

The organisation and procedure of the bar are determined by legislation of the USSR and Union Republics.

Article 162. Representatives of public organisations and of work collectives may take part in civil and criminal proceedings.

Article 163. Economic disputes between enterprises, institutions, and organisations are settled by state arbitration bodies within the limits of their jurisdiction.

The organisations and manner of functioning of state arbitration bodies are defined in the Law on State Arbitration in the USSR.

Chapter 21: THE PROCURATOR'S OFFICE

Article 164. Supreme power of supervision over the strict and uniform observance of laws by all ministries, state committees and departments, enterprises, institutions and organisations, executive-administrative bodies of local Soviets of People's Deputies, collective farms, co-operatives and other public organisations, officials and citizens is vested in the Procurator-General of the USSR and procurators subordinate to him.

Article 165. The Procurator-General of the USSR is appointed by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and is responsible and accountable to it and, between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Article 166. The procurators of Union Republics, Autonomous Republics, Territories, Regions and Autonomous Regions are appointed by the Procurator-General of the USSR. The procurators of Autonomous Areas and district and city procurators are appointed by the Procurators of Union Republics, subject to confirmation by the Procurator-General of the USSR.

Article 167. The term of office of the Procurator-General of the USSR and all lower-ranking procurators shall be five years.

Article 168. The agencies of the Procurator's Office exercise their powers independently of any local bodies whatsoever, and are subordinate solely to the Procurator-General of the USSR.

The organisation and procedure of the agencies of the Procurator's Office are defined in the Law on the Procurator's Office of the USSR.

VIII. THE EMBLEM, FLAG, ANTHEM, AND CAPITAL OF THE USSR

Article 169. The State Emblem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a hammer and sickle on a globe depicted in the rays of the sun and framed by ears of wheat, with the inscription "Workers of All Countries, Unite!" in the languages of the Union Republics. At the top of the Emblem is a five-pointed star.

Article 170. The State Flag of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a rectangle of red cloth with a hammer and sickle depicted in gold in the upper corner next to the staff and with a five-pointed red star edged in gold above them. The ratio of the width of the flag to its length is 1:2

Article 171. The State Anthem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is confirmed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Article 172. The Capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is the city of Moscow.

IX. THE LEGAL FORCE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE USSR AND PROCEDURE FOR AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION

Article 173. The Constitution of the USSR shall have supreme legal force. All laws and other acts of state bodies shall be promulgated on the basis of and in conformity with it.

Article 174. The Constitution of the USSR may be amended by a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total number of Deputies of each of its chambers.

(3)

ROUSKAÏA PRAVDA (La loi russe): VERSION COURTE

LA PRAVDA DE IAROSLAV

Article 1. Si un homme(4) en tue un autre, c'est au frère de venger le frère, au fils de venger le père ou bien c'est au fils du frère ou au fils de la sœur(5); s'il ne se présente pas de vengeur, 40 grivna (6) pour l'homme assassiné; que la victime soit russe, homme d'armes, marchand, homme de justice, guerrier, déclassé ou slovène (7), 40 grivna.

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Note 4 - Mouj : l'homme libre qui, vraisemblablement, fait partie de la droujina du prince.

Note 5 - Le droit de vengeance est en fait le droit de tuer le meurtrier; mais il peut être remplacé par une peine en argent, c'est à dire par le "prix du sang" (le wergeld du droit germanique; en vx r. vira) à la famille de la victime.

Note 6 - Grivna (de griva : cou, collier; actuellement : crinière) : principale unité monétaire de cette époque, se présentant comme un lingot d'argent dont le poids a varié de 50 à 200g. Il est impossible d'évaluer ce que représentaient 40 grivna : certainement une somme importante, correpondant à 2 kg d'argent. Dans la Version courte, 1 grivna = 20 nogata = 25 kouna = 50 rézana.

Note 7 - "Russe" signifie ici Russe du sud et plus spécialement de Kiev, par opposition à "Slovène" qui est le Russe du nord ou de Novgorod. Par "déclassé" on traduit ici izgoï, qui désignait un homme ayant rompu avec son milieu social (en particulier les affranchis que l'on retrouve souvent dépendant des princes ou des dignitaires de l'Eglise).

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Article 2. Si un homme a été battu jusqu'au sang ou s'il porte des traces de coups, il n'a pas besoin de chercher de témoin; s'il n'en porte aucune trace, alors que des témoins viennent; si l'homme ne peut produire de témoin, l'affaire en reste là; s'il ne peut lui-même tirer vengeance, qu'il prenne alors 3 grivna d'indemnité au coupable ainsi que les frais pour le médecin.

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Article 3. Si un homme en frappe un autre avec un gourdin, une trique, la main, une coupe, une corne à boire ou le plat du glaive, il doit payer 12 grivna; si on ne le rattrape pas, alors il paie et l'affaire en reste là (8).

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Note 8 - Tikhomirov propose de comprendre : si l'offenseur n'est pas pris sur le fait et si l'on ne se venge pas de lui immédiatement, l'affaire se limite à une peine d'argent.

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Article 4. Si un homme en frappe un autre avec son glaive (9) non dégainé, ou bien frappe avec la poignée, alors il paie 12 grivna de dédommagement à la victime.

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Note 9 - Le glaive était sans doute le signe distinctif des membres de la droujina.

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Article 5. Si un homme en frappe un autre sur la main avec son glaive et que la main tombe ou reste paralysée, alors il paie 40 grivna.

Article 6. Si la jambe reste entière mais qu'elle fasse boiter, les parents de la victime tirent vengeance du coupable.

Article 7. Si un homme coupe à un autre l'un quelconque des doigts, il paie un dédommagement de 3 grivna à la victime.

Article 8. Et pour une moustache tirée ou pour une touffe de barbe arrachée, 12 grivna.

Article 9. Si un homme dégaine son glaive mais n'en frappe pas, il paie une grivna.

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Article 10. Si un homme en bouscule un autre, soit en l'attirant vers lui soit en le repoussant, il paie 3 grivna si la victime produit deux témoins; mais si la victime est un Varégue ou un Kolbiag, on lui fait prêter serment (10).

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Note 10 - Le Kolbiag est un étranger dont l'origine est mal déterminée; il vient sans doute, comme le Varègue, de Scandinavie. On suppose que la seule exigence du serment s'explique par la difficulté que Varègues ou Kolbiags éprouvaient à trouver des témoins dans un pays qui leur était étranger.

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Article 11. Si un serviteur (11) se cache chez un Varègue ou un Kolbiag et qu'on ne le ramène pas à son propriétaire dans les trois jours : si le propriétaire le découvre le troisième jour, il peut s'en emparer; et celui qui a caché le serviteur doit payer 3 grivna de dédommagement à la victime.

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Note 11 - Tchéliadine : désigne aux X°-XI° siècles l'esclave; puis, vers la fin du XI° siècle et le début du XII° siècle, l'ensemble des personnes dépendant d'un seigneur.

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Article 12. Si une personne part sur le cheval d'autrui sans en avoir demandé la permission, elle paie 3 grivna.

Article 13. Si une personne s'empare du cheval, des armes ou des vêtements d'autrui et que le propriétaire les reconnaisse dans sa commune (12) : qu'il les reprenne, et le voleur paiera 3 grivna de dédommagement à la victime.

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Note 12 - Dans la commune dont il est membre ou encore dont il est le chef; s'il ne retrouve pas l'objet volé dans sa commune, il est, semble-t-il, renvoyé à la procédure de l'article 14.

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Article 14. Si un homme reconnaît chez autrui [quelquechose qui lui appartient], il ne doit pas le reprendre en disant : "c'est à moi"; mais qu'il dise "mène ton enquête (13) et explique où tu l'as pris". Si ce dernier ne fait pas lui-même son enquête, qu'il désigne un homme de confiance dans un délai de cinq jours.

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Note 13 - Cet article, comme l'article 16, vise apparemment le cas où le détenteur de l'objet volé l'a acheté de bonne foi au voleur lui-même ou à un intermédiaire; le propriétaire lui demande alors de remonter la chaîne des vendeurs.

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Article 15. Si une personne exige d'une autre le paiement du solde [d'une dette] et que celle-ci se mette à refuser, elle doit se rendre pour instruction [avec son débiteur] devant [un tribunal] de 12 hommes (14); et s'il se trouve que le débiteur faisait preuve de mauvaise volonté à rendre l'argent, alors il doit rembourser le créancier en argent et lui donner en plus 3 grivna de dédommagement.

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Note 14 - Cette procédure, appelée izvod, témoigne de la survivance d'une justice communale, indépendante de la justice princière.

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Article 16. Si quelqu'un reconnaît son serviteur [qui avait disparu] et veut le reprendre, il doit alors le conduire chez celui à qui il a été acheté [après le vol]; ce dernier se rend chez le second acheteur et quand on arrive au troisième, le propriétaire peut lui dire alors : "Donne-moi ton serviteur et va chercher ton argent avec un témoin" (15).

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Note 15 - Cet article, passablement obscur, peut être compris comme suit : le véritable propriétaire, lorsqu'il a reconnu son esclave, remonte, pour trouver le voleur, la chaîne des acheteurs successifs; mais il ne mène pas lui-même son enquête jusqu'au bout et peut s'arrêter à la troisième personne. Celle-ci, bien qu'ayant acheté l'esclave en toute bonne foi, doit temporairement donner l'un de ses esclaves au propriètaire et poursuivre elle-même l'enquête. Quand elle a trouvé le voleur de l'esclave, elle échange alors l'esclave volé contre l'esclave qu'elle a prêté et elle reçoit une somme d'argent en dédommagement.

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Article 17. Si un esclave (16) frappe un homme libre et se réfugie dans la maison de son maître et que celui-ci ne veut pas le livrer, le maître pourra alors garder l'esclave mais devra payer pour lui 12 grivna; après quoi, où que la victime retrouve l'esclave elle pourra le tuer.

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Note 16 - Kholop désigne l'esclave plus strictement que tchéliadine.

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Article 18. Et si quelqu'un casse une lance, un bouclier, ou détériore des vêtements et veut conserver pour lui ces objets, le propriétaire doit recevoir de l'argent en compensation; mais, si, après avoir cassé l'un de ces objets, la même personne tente de le rendre à son propriètaire, elle doit verser au propriétaire autant d'argent que celui-ci en avait donné pour l'acheter.

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LA PRAVDA DES FILS DE IAROSLAV (17)

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Note 17 - Les historiens font en général remonter cette seconde partie à 1072, date à laquelle se tint à Vychgorod, après les troubles des années 1068 et 1071, un "congrès" des fils de Iaroslav.

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Loi établie pour la Terre russe quand se réunirent Iziaslav, Vsévolod, Sviatoslav, Kosniatchko Péréneg, Nikifor de Kiev, Tchoudine et Mikoula (18).

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Note 18 - Iziaslav, Vsévolod et Sviatoslav sont les trois fils de Iaroslav; ils ont été tous trois grands-princes de Kiev : Iziaslav de 1054 à 1073, Sviatoslav de 1073 à 1076, Iziaslav à nouveau de 1076 à 1078 et Vsévolod de 1078 à 1093. Kosniatchko, Nikifor, Tchoudine et Mikoula sont des boïars; Kosniatchko était voïévode (chef militaire) de Kiev en 1068.

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Article 19. Si l'on tue un régisseur du palais (19), le meurtrier doit payer 80 grivna de dédommagement, mais les gens (20) n'ont pas à payer; et pour un collecteur de taxes, 80 grivna aussi.

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Note 19 - Ognichtchanine : au sens strict, le gardien du foyer (ogon' : feu). C'est un membre de la "vieille droujina" (starchaïa droujina), la plus proche du prince.
Note 20 - On ne sait trop ce que représentent ces "gens" (lioudi, cf. all. Leute, fr. leudes); il s'agit peut-être des citadins de Kiev; cet article en tout cas veut indiquer qu'il n'y pas de responsabilité collective.

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Article 20. Et si l'on tue un intendant (21) dans une rixe et que les gens ne se mettent pas à la recherche du meurtrier, alors c'est la commune sur le territoire de laquelle a été trouvé le cadavre qui paie l'amende (22).

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Note 21 - Tioun, d'origine scandinave, à rapprocher de l'all. Dienst (service).
Note 22 - L'amende payée en ce cas était appelée dikaïa vira, c'est-à-dire le prix du sang payé pour la faute d'autrui (diki équivalait alors à tchoujoï : d'autrui, étranger).

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Article 21. Si un régisseur est tué par quelqu'un qui est en train de voler dans une maison, de voler un cheval ou bien une vache, alors qu'on le tue comme un chien. Cette disposition vaut aussi pour le meurtre d'un intendant (23).

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Note 23 - Article très ambigu, interprété aussi - de manière radicalement différente - comme le droit pour un homme de tuer le régisseur pris en flagrant délit de vol.

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Article 22. Et pour le meurtre de l'intendant d'un prince, 80 grivna.

Article 23. Et pour le meurtre d'un palefrenier en chef alors qu'il garde le troupeau, 80 grivna comme en a décidé Iziaslav quand les gens de Dorogobouj (24) lui avaient tué un palefrenier.

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Note 24 - Petite ville de la région de Smolensk, sur un affluent du Pripet.

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Article 24. Et pour le meurtre d'un contremaître princier (25) qui surveille les bourgs et les travaux des champs, 12 grivna.

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Note 25 - Le mot russe est starosta (l'ancien; d'où : le chef, le responsable) qui, dans des contextes divers, est resté employé jusqu'à nos jours.

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Article 25. Et pour le meurtre d'un homme sous contrat (26) appartenant au prince, 5 grivna.

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Note 26 - L'homme sous contrat (riadovitch) est entré volontairement dans la dépendance du prince ; les conditions auxquelles il peut recouvrer sa liberté sont définies par le contrat (riad). On pense qu'il faisait fonction d'adjoint du régisseur ou de l'intendant.

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Article 26. Et pour le meurtre d'un paysan ou d'un esclave, 5 grivna.

Article 27. Et pour le meurtre d'une nourrice esclave ou d'un précepteur, 12 grivna.

Article 28. Et pour le cheval d'un prince s'il porte sa marque, 3 grivna, et pour celui d'un paysan, 2 grivna; pour une jument 60 rézana, pour un bœuf, une grivna; pour une vache, 40 rézana; pour une vache de trois ans, 15 kouna; de deux ans, une demi-grivna; pour un veau, 5 rézana; pour un agneau, une nogata; pour un mouton, une nogata (27).

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Note 27 - Kouna : fourrure de martre (r. kounitsa : la martre) qui servit de monnaie jusqu'au XV° siècle; la nogata (r. noga : jambe, patte) désignerait une fourrure comportant les quattres pattes de l'animal; la rézana (r. rézat' : couper) désigne un morceau de la grivna ou de la fourrure.

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Article 29. Et si la personne enlève un esclave ou une esclave qui ne lui appartient pas, il paie un dédommagement de 12 grivna à la victime.

Article 31. Si quelqu'un vole un cheval ou des bœufs, ou s'il vole dans une maison et qu'il ait volé seul, alors il doit payer une grivna et 30 rézana; s'il y a 18 [ou 10 ?] voleurs, chacun doit payer 3 grivna et aux gens [du prince] 30 rézana (28).

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Note 28 - Le vol à plusieurs, donc sans doute prémédité et organisé, est plus sévèrement sanctionné.

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Article 32. Et si l'on brûle les ruches du prince et qu'on en retire les abeilles, 3 grivna.

Article 33. Si l'on châtie un paysan sans en avoir l'ordre du prince, 3 grivna pour l'offense; et si l'on fait de même d'un intendant, d'un régisseur ou d'un homme d'armes, 12 grivna.

Article 34. Et si quelqu'un laboure au-delà de la limite, ou détruit sur les arbres les marques de délimitation, 12 grivna de dédommagement à la victime.

Article 35. Et si quelqu'un dérobe une barque, il doit payer 30 rézana pour la barque et 60 rézana d'amende.

Article 36. Et pour un pigeon et pour une poule, 9 kouna; pour un canard, une barque et 60 rézana d'amende.

Article 37. Et si l'on dérobe un chien, un épervier, un faucon, 3 grivna de dédommagement à la victime.

Article 38. Et si quelqu'un tue un voleur dans sa propre cour, dans sa propre maison ou dans son écurie, qu'il en soit ainsi : si l'on a réussi à retenir le voleur jusqu'à l'aurore, alors on le conduit à la cour du prince; et si on le tue et que des gens l'ont vu attaché, alors il faut payer pour lui (29).

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Note 29 - Article obscur dont le sens peut être le suivant : de nuit, la victime d'un vol peut se faire justice elle-même contre le voleur, mais après l'aurore le vol relève de la juridition du prince. Cependant, si de nuit on parvient à maîtriser le voleur, on ne peut plus le tuer et il faut le conduire à la cour du prince; ceux qui l'auraient tué devraient payé le prix du sang, à condition qu'il y ait eu des témoins.

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Article 39. Si l'on vole du foin ou du bois, 9 kouna.

Article 40. Si l'on vole une brebis, une chèvre ou un porc et que 10 hommes aient volé la brebis, que chacun d'entre eux paie une amende de 60 rézana; et 10 rézana à celui qui a arrêté le voleur.

ROUSKAÏA PRAVDA (La loi russe): VERSION LONGUE (30)

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Note 30 - La "Version longue" comporte 121 articles concernant le statut des catégories sociales non privilégiées, les marchands, les échanges et les conditions de crédit, le droit de la famille et des successions; nous avons regroupé la plupart des articles de la 1ère catégorie. Les historiens ne sont pas d'accord sur l'époque à laquelle elle remonte : début du XIII° siècle en liaison avec les troubles de Novgorod (Tikhomirov, Tchérepnine)? Premier quart du XII° siècle sous Vladimir Monomaque (Zimine, Rybakov)? Iouchkov en fait remonter certaines parties à 1046-1047, 1097 ("Congrès" princier de Lioubétch), 1113 (avènement de Vladimir Monomaque). Les écarts sont encore plus considérables pour la dernière partie que l'on appelle communément "Statut des esclaves" (art. 110-121).

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Article 56. Si un zakoup (31) s'enfuit de chez son maître, il devient alors esclave complet (32); s'il part en quête d'argent et qu'il le fasse ouvertement, ou bien s'il cherche refuge chez le prince ou des juges parceque son maître lui a fait offense, en ce cas on ne l'asservira pas mais on lui rendra justice selon la loi.

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Note 31 - Les zapouky constituent une catégorie nouvelle de personnes dépendantes. Leur nom vient de ce qu'ils se trouvaient engagés à l'égard d'un seigneur par le prêt (koupa) en argent ou en nature que celui-ci leur avait consenti; ils recouvraient théoriquement leur liberté quand ils avaient "racheté" leur dette.

Note 32 - Vx r. : obiél'ny kholop; le fait que le zakoup puisse chercher justice semble indiquer qu'il avait du point de vue juridique le même statut que le paysan libre. Le cas devait être fréquent, avant cet article, où le maître tirait prétexte de tout franchissement des limites de son domaine du zakoup pour le réduire en esclavage.

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Article 57. Encore à propos du zakoup. Si un maître emploie un zakoup aux travaux des champs et que celui-ci fasse mourir le cheval du domaine (33), il n'en paiera pas la prix au maître; mais si le maître lui a donné une charrue et une herse, tout en lui demandant un paiement en remboursement du prêt qu'il lui a consenti, le zakoup paie pour la charrue et la herse s'il les détériore; si d'autre part, on l'envoie travailler pour le compte du maître et qu'en son absence le cheval meure, il ne sera pas tenu de payer.

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Note 33 - Un mot du texte, mal établi, permet aussi d'interpréter "cheval de guerre".

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Article 58. Encore à propos du zakoup. Si l'on vole le cheval à l'écurie, le zakoup n'est pas tenu de payer; mais si le cheval meurt aux champs, ou que le zakoup ne le conduise pas à l'écurie, ou qu'il ne ferme pas ce que son maître lui a ordonné de fermer, ou qu'enfin le cheval meure au cours du travail effectué pour le compte du zakoup (34), le zakoup est tenu de payer.

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Note 34 - Ce passage tend à prouver que le zakoup conserve sa propre exploitation.

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Article 59. Si un maître fait offense au zakoup en portant atteinte au prêt qu'il lui a fait en argent ou en cheptel (35), il doit tout rendre et payer 60 kouna pour l'offense.

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Note 35 - Vx r. : otarista = cheptel, mais peut-être aussi lopin de terre.

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Article 60. Si le maître reprend au zakoup plus d'argent qu'il ne lui en avait prêté, il doit lui rendre ce qu'il a pris en trop et payer au prince 12 grivna d'amende.

Article 61. Si un maître vend un zakoup comme esclave complet, le zakoup (36) sera libéré de toute ses obligations financières à l'égard du maître et celui-ci paiera 12 grivna d'amende.

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Note 36 - En fait, vx r. naïmit = l'homme qui a souscrit à un contrat par lequel il s'engage à rembourser le montant du prêt avec intérêt. Bien que le contrat ne portât au début que sur le travail et non sur la personne, bon nombre de naïmity sont devenus esclaves aux XVI° et XVII° siècles.

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Article 62. Si le maître bat le zakoup pour des raisons sérieuses, on ne lui en fera pas grief; mais s'il le bat sans raison, en état d'ivresse, sans qu'il y ait faute de la part du zakoup, en ce cas l'amende pour le zakoup battu est la même que pour un homme libre.

Article 64. Si un zakoup commet un vol, son maître est responsable à sa place; mais si l'on retrouve le zakoup en quelque lieu, le maître, après avoir payé le cheval ou toute autre chose volée, fait du zakoup un esclave complet; et si le maître ne veut pas payer pour lui et qu'il le vende, il devra d'abord rembourser le cheval, le boeuf ou toute autre chose volée par le zakoup; il pourra par la suite conserver pour lui la différence.

Article 78. Le paysan (37). Si un paysan se rend coupable de sévices sur la personne d'un autre paysan sans la permission du prince, il doit payer une amende de 3 grivna [au prince] et une grivna de dédommagement pour les sévices. Si les sévices ont été exercés sur la personne d'un régisseur, 12 grivna d'amende et une grivna pour les sévices.

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Note 37 - Vx r. : smierd, dont l'étymologie est controversée (du vx sl. smierdiet' : puer, ou du persan mard : homme). Controversé aussi, le statut du smierd à l'époque kiévienne; on ne sait si tous les paysans étaient libres, ou tous dépendants, ou enfin s'ils pouvaient être l'un ou l'autre.

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Article 90. Si un paysan meurt. Si un paysan vient à mourir (38), son héritage revient au prince. S'il a des filles, il convient de leur donner une part; si elles sont mariées, il n'y a rien à leur donner.

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Note 38 - Vraisemblablement "s'il vient à mourir sans fils".

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Article 46. Si des esclaves (kholopy) se rendent coupables de vol. Si des esclaves se rendent coupables de vol, qu'ils soient esclaves du prince, des boïars ou de l'Eglise, le prince ne les punit pas d'une amende puisqu'ils ne sont pas libres, mais c'est à leur maître de payer un double dédommagement à la victime.

Article 65. Et si un esclave frappe un homme libre et se réfugie chez son maître et que le maître ne veuille pas le livrer, il doit payer pour lui 12 grivna; si après cela la victime retrouve son offenseur, alors Iaroslav a établi qu'elle pouvait le tuer, mais les fils [de Iaroslav] à la mort de leur père ont institué des peines d'argent; ou bien on peut le fouetter publiquement, ou bien prendre de l'argent pour l'offense (39).

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Note 39 - Comparer version courte, art. 16.

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Article 89. Pour le meurtre d'un ou d'une esclave, on n'inflige pas d'amende; mais si l'homme ou la femme esclaves sont innocents, on paie [au maître] une indemnité pour le dommage et au prince 12 grivna.

Article 98. Si un homme laisse après lui des enfants qu'il a eu d'une esclave, ceux-ci n'ont pas de part à l'héritage mais reçoivent, ainsi que leur mère, la liberté.

Article 110. Il y a trois origines à l'esclavage complet : si une personne en achète une autre, ne fût-ce que pour une demi-grivna, en présence de témoins qu'elle a produit et en donnant, en présence de l'esclave, ne fût-ce qu'une nogata au vendeur; si l'on se marie à une esclave sans faire de contrat préalable (s'il y a contrat, la situation de la personne reste telle qu'elle est définie dans le contrat); enfin une troisième origine : être régisseur sans contrat préalable, ou dans le cas où l'on prend possession des clés sans contrat (s'il y a contrat, la situation de la personne reste telle qu'elle est définie dans le contrat) (40).

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Note 40 - Il ne s'agit ici que des esclaves "complets", les plus défavorisés. Au début du XII° siècle, le mot kholop (habituellement compris comme esclave) ne désigne rien d'autre, s'il n'est suivi de l'adjectif obiel'ny, qu'un homme travaillant pour un maître.

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111. Mais l'homme qui regagne par son travail l'argent qui lui a été prêté n'est pas esclave; on ne peut asservir non plus pour du blé ou toute autre chose qui a été donnée. Mais si l'homme ne regagne pas ces choses dans le délai prévu, il lui faut rendre au maître ce qu'il en a reçu; s'il les regagne, il n'a plus d'obligation (41).

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Note 41 - L'article évoque en fait le statut du zakoup qu'il protège de l'esclavage complet.

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Article 112. Si un esclave s'enfuit et que son maître le fasse savoir sur la place du marché, et si une personne, tout en sachant par ouï-dire ou pertinemment qu'il s'agit d'un esclave, lui donne à manger ou l'aide à se cacher, elle doit payer 5 grivna d'amende et 6 grivna de dédommagement pour l'esclave (42).

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Note 42 - La difficulté qu'il y avait pour un maître à récupérer un esclave en fuite fait dire à Tikhomirov qu'en Russie aussi l'air de la ville rendait libre.

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Article 115. Si quelqu'un rencontre un esclave en fuite et que, ignorant sa condition, il l'aide à se cacher ou lui donne asile et que l'esclave par la suite s'en aille de chez lui, la personne doit faire serment qu'elle ignorait avoir affaire à un esclave; il n'y a pas alors de paiement pour cela.

Article 116. Si un esclave, en quelque lieu que ce soit, obtient frauduleusement de l'argent d'une personne qui ignorait sa condition, le maître doit rembourser, ou bien se défaire de son esclave; si au contraire la personne a donné de l'argent en connaissance de cause, elle doit renoncer à son argent.

Article 118. Si quelqu'un achète, sans le savoir, un esclave en fuite, le premier maître peut reprendre son esclave et l'autre son argent après avoir juré qu'il l'avait acheté en ignorant sa condition; si au contraire il l'a acheté en connaissance de cause, il perd son argent.

Article 121. Si un esclave vole quelqu'un, son maître remboursera pour lui ou bien il le livrera avec ses complices éventuels, mais il ne livrera pas sa femme ou ses enfants. Mais s'ils ont volé ensemble et recélé l'objet du vol, le maître les livrera tous; si avec eux ont volé des hommes libres, ils paient une amende du prince.

Note 43 - Les historiens s'accordent à penser que ce statut a été effectivement composé dans les dernières années du règne de Iarislav "le sage" (1016-1054), alors que pour la première fois un Russe, Ilarion, venait d'accéder au siège de métropolite de Kiev (1051). Le texte original, qui n'a pas été conservé, a connu des ajouts et des transformations du XI° au XVI° siècle. Nous donnons ici les 36 articles de la "version brève", complétée par quelques articles ultérieurs de la "version longue" (indiqués par leurs numéros antre crochets et introduits à leur place logique).
Note 44 - Après sa conversion au christianisme (988), Vladimir avait, dans son Statut ecclésiastique, doté l'Eglise russe naissante (qui n'avait pas encore de propriété foncière) du dixième des revenus princiers et fondé en 991 l'Eglise de la Dîme.
Note 45 - Nom de plusieurs recueils de droit canon byzantin, contenant à la fois des règles religieuses et des lois impériales concernant l'Eglise.
LE STATUT DU GRAND-PRINCE IAROSLAV Moi, grand-prince Iaroslav, fils de Vladimir, j'ai pris conseil du métropolite Ilarion et, en accord avec les disposition de mon père (44), j'ai mis en vigueur le Nomokanon grec (45) parce qu'il ne convient pas que le prince ou les boïars jugent des affaires suivantes. J'ai remis les affaires qui sont mentionnées dans les règles du Nomokanon au métropolite et aux évêques de toutes les villes et de tous les cantons où se trouvent des chrétiens.

Note 46 - Le montant des amendes est indiqué en grivna d'or et d'argent, ou en grivna tout court(il s'agit alors de grivna en fourrures de martre qui valent le quart de la grivna d'argent), ou en roubles (roubl', de roubit' : trancher, le rouble étant alors une fraction de la grivna). Ces unités de compte sont autant d'indices des divers stades par lesquels est passé le Statut : alors que la grivna d'or disparaît au cours du XII° siècle, le rouble - qui figure dans les articles de la version longue - n'apparaît, lui, que vers le milieu du XIV° iècle. La grivna d'or valait peut-être 50 ou 60 grivna de martre et 12 à 15 grivna d'argent.

Note 47 - La distinction entre grands boïars et boïars mineur est caractéristique de la Bulgarie médiévale. Les grands boïars y constituent le Boïarshi soviet, institution analogue à le Boïarskaïa douma russe. Certains historiens pensent trouver là l'indice d'un remaniement tardif du texte, effectué par le métropolite Kiprian, lui-même d'origine bulgare vers la fin du XIV° siècle ou au début du XV° siècle.

Note 48 - Cette formule à répétition semble montrer que la délimitation des compétences juridiques du prince et de l'Eglise a toujours fait problème, soit qu'à l'époque de la rédaction primitive le prince ait tenu à conserver un droit de regard sur certaines affaires, soit que les rédactions plus tardives traduisent la réduction des immunités judiciaires de l'Eglise et l'extension de l'autorité laïque. 1. Si quelqu'un enlève une jeune fille ou lui fait violence : si c'est une fille de boïar, il lui revient à elle 5 grivna d'or (46) pour l'offense et à l'évêque aussi 5 grivna d'or; si elle appartient à une famille de boïars mineurs (47), 1 grivna d'or et 1 grivna d'or à l'évêque; à une famille de gens aisés, 5 grivna d'argent pour l'offense et 5 grivna d'argent à l'évêque; et une grivna d'argent par ravisseur à l'évêque; mais c'est au prince de châtier (48).

Article 2. Si quelqu'un viole la fille ou la femme d'un boïar, il lui revient 5 grivna d'or pour l'offense et à l'évêque 5 grivna d'or; si elles appartiennent à une famille de boïars mineurs, une grivna d'or et une grivna d'or pour l'évêque; à une famille de gens aisés, 3 roubles et 3 roubles à l'évêque; à une famille de gens du commun, 15 grivna et à l'évêque 15 grivna; mais c'est au prince de châtier.

Article 3. Si un grand boïar chasse sa femme sans qu'elle est commis de faute, 5 grivna d'or à la femme pour l'offense et 5 grivna d'or à l'évêque; s'il s'agit de gens riches, 3 roubles et 3 roubles à l'évêque; s'il s'agit de gens du commun, 15 grivna et à l'évêque 15 grivna; mais c'est au prince de châtier.

Article 4. Si une fille, chez son père et sa mère, a un enfant alors qu'elle n'est pas mariée, qu'on la prenne, après l'avoir confondue, dans la maison de l'Eglise (49); et il en va de même pour une femme (50), jusqu'à ce que sa famille l'ait rachetée.

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Note 49 - Sans doute une institution de type monacal.

Note 50 - D'autres versions permettent de penser qu'il s'agit ici d'une veuve ou de toute femme ayant un enfant adultérin.

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Article 5. Si quelqu'un attire chez lui une fille et la livre à plusieurs hommes, le suborneur paie 3 grivna d'argent à l'évêque et 3 grivna d'argent à la fille pour le déshonneur et un rouble par complice de la débauche; mais c'est au prince de châtier.

Article 6. Si un homme quitte sa femme pour s'adonner à la débauche, il est justiciable de l'évêque et le prince le punit.

Article 7. Si un homme se marie avec une seconde femme sans s'être séparé de la première, il est justiciable de l'évêque et il lui faut remettre la seconde femme à la maison de l'Eglise et continuer à vivre avec la première.

Article 8. Si une femme souffre d'une maladie grave, si elle est aveugle ou si elle est malade depuis longtemps, ces raisons ne sont pas suffisantes pour la répudier; de même, dans ces cas, il est interdit à la femme de renvoyer son mari.

Article 9. Si le parrain fornique avec la marraine (51), une grivna d'or à l'évêque et ils font pénitence.

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Note 51 - La parenté spirituelle établie entre le parrain et la marraine par le baptême de leur filleul a toujours été placée par l'Eglise orthodoxe sur le même plan qu'une parenté par le sang. Les mots koum et kouma, par lesquels les parents de l'enfant baptisé désignent le parrain et la marraine correspondent, en français populaire, à "compère" et "commère".

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Article 10. Si quelqu'un met le feu à une maison, à une grange ou à quelque chose d'autre, 100 grivna à l'évêque; mais c'est au prince de châtier (52).

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Note 52 - Cet artcile traduit sans doute l'élargissement ultérieur des droits ecclésiastiques aux dépens de la juridiction du prince; il est visiblement destiné à protéger les biens de l'Eglise.

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Article 11. Si quelqu'un pèche avec sa soeur, 100 grivna à l'évêque; ils font pénitence et sont châtiés selon la loi.

Article 12. Si des proches parents se marient, 80 grivna à l'évêque, et ils doivent se séparer et se soumettre à la pénitence.

Article 13. Si quelqu'un à deux femmes, 40 grivna à l'évêque; la seconde femme est mise dans la maison de l'Eglise et l'homme doit vivre avec la première comme c'est la loi; s'il continue à la maltraiter, il faut la châtier.

Article 14. Si un homme, de sa seule initiative, se sépare de sa femme, 12 grivna à l'évêque; mais si le mariage n'a pas été religieux (53) : 6 grivna à l'évêque.

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Note 53 - D'après les règles du métropolite de Kiev Ioann II (fin du XI° siècle), seuls les mariages des princes et des boïars recevaient la bénédiction religieuse; les "gens du commun" se contentaient de sanctionner leur union par des rites païens traditionnels (chants, danses, jeux et luttes).

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Article 15. Si un homme fornique avec une nonne, 100 grivna à l'évêque.

Article 16. Et avec un animal, 12 grivna et la pénitence lui est imposée.

Article 17. Si le beau-père fornique avec sa bru, 100 grivna à l'évêque et le châtiment selon la loi.

Article 18. Si quelqu'un pèche avec deux soeurs, 30 grivna à l'évêque.

Article 19. Si un homme pèche avec la femme de son frère, 30 grivna à l'évêque.

Article 20. Si quelqu'un fornique avec sa marâtre, 40 grivna à l'évêque.

Article 21. Si deux frères vivent avec la même femme, 100 grivna à l'évêque et la femme est mise dans la maison de l'Eglise. ^[26]. Si un père pèche avec sa fille, 40 grivna au métroplite et ils subiront la pénitence selon la loi.

Article 22. Si une jeune fille ne veut pas se marier, que son père et sa mère l'y contraigne et qu'elle attente à ses jours, les parents sont justiciables de l'évêque et doivent payer les dommages (54).

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Note 54 - Peut-être s'agit-il des frais engagés par le fiancé.

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Article 23. Si quelqu'un appelle putain la femme d'un grand boïar, il lui revient à elle 5 grivna d'or pour le déshonneur et à l'évêque 5 grivna d'or, mais c'est au prince de châtier; si c'est la femme d'un boïar mineur, 3 grivna d'or pour le déshonneur et 3 grivna d'or pour l'évêque; si elle est d'une famille de citadins, 3 grivna d'argent pour l'offense et 3 grivna d'argent à l'évêque; d'une famille de gens de la campagne, une grivna d'argent et une grivna d'argent à l'évêque.

Article 24. Si quelqu'un tond à autrui les cheveux ou la barbe, 12 grivna à l'évêque, mais c'est au prince de châtier (55).

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Note 55 - Selon l'Eglise orthodoxe, un homme tondu et surtout rasé est déshonoré, n'étant plus à l'image de Dieu.

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Article 25. Si un homme vole du chanvre, du lin ou du blé, l'évêque est pour moitié avec le prince pour l'amende; de même pour une femme si elle vole quelque chose.

Article 26. Si un homme vole à sa femme des vêtements blancs, ou de la toile ou des pièces de tissu ou des sarraus, l'évêque et le prince se partagent l'amende; de même si c'est une femme qui vole. 56 - Allusion aux rites mentionnés plus haut qui dégénéraient souvent en rixes.

Article 27. Au moment du repas de fiançailles ou de mariage, s'il y a une rixe ou un meutre (56)... , l'amende va pour moitié au prince et pour moitié à l'évêque.

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Note 57 - C'était une coutumes païenne que de couper en morceux le fromage ou le pain lors de la cérémonie des fiançailles. L'amende et les frais visent le jeune homme qui, ensuite, n'a pas honoré la promesse de mariage. ^[33]. Si, pour une jeune fille, le fromage a été rompu, une grivna pour le fromage et 3 grivna pour l'offense; et il faut lui payer ce qui a été perdu (57); 6 grivna au métropolite, mais c'est au prince de châtier.

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Article 28. Si deux hommes se battent comme des femmes en se mordant et en s'égratignant, 3 grivna à l'évêque (58).

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Note 58 - Les violences entre hommes de bien relevant généralement de la justice du prince, il doit s'agir des bagarres entre "gens du commun".

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Article 29. Si un homme bat la femme d'un autre, la femme est dédommagée de l'offense selon la loi et l'homme paie 3 grivna à l'évêque.

Article 30. Si un fils bat son père ou sa mère, son châtiment est remis à la responsabilité du chef de canton (volostiel') et il est justiciabledevant l'évêque. ^[39]. Si une femme bat son mari, 3 grivna au métropolite.

Article 31. Si une jeune fille veut se marier et que son père et sa mère l'en empêchent et qu'elle attente à ses jours, le père et la mère sont justiciables de l'évêque; de même s'il s'agit d'un jeune homme.

Article 32. Si un moine, une nonne, un pope, une popesse ou une femme qui fait le pain de l'hostie se livrent à la débauche, c'est à l'évêque de les juger, en dehors des laïcs, et il est libre de les condamner comme il l'entend.

Article 33. Si un pope ou un moine d'enivrent constamment, ils sont justiciables de l'évêque.

Article 34. Si un moine ou une nonne se défroquent, ils sont justiciables de l'évêque, qui est libre de les condamner comme il l'entend. ^[17]. Si un juif, un musulman ou un homme d'une foi étrangère va avec une Russe, le métropolite prend 50 grivna aux étrangers et la femme sera conduite à la maison de l'Eglise. ^[49]. Avec une personne non baptisée ou une personne d'une autre religion, ou non baptisée dans notre religion, on ne mangera ni ne boiera jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit baptisée; et si une personne mange ou boit, elle est justiciable du métropolite. ^[50]. Celui qui mange et boit avec un excommunié sera lui-même excommunié. ^[51]. Si un homme fornique avec une musulmane ou une juive et qu'il ne veut pas s'en séparer, il est éloigné de l'Eglise et des chrétiens, et 12 grivna d'amende au métropolite.

Article 35. Les chefs de district du prince n'interviennent pas dans ce qui se passe chez les gens dépendants de l'évêque et des églises, et dans les monastères; ce sont les représentants de l'évêque qui sont compétents et les biens en déshérence reviennent à l'évêque.

Article 36. Et si quelqu'un vient à enfreindre mon statut, que ce soient mes fils, mes petits-fils, mes arrières-petits-fils ou bien toute personne de ma famille ou bien quelqu'un des boïars; et s'ils interviennent dans la juridiction que j'ai remise au métropolite, à l'Eglise et aux évêques dans toutes les villes selon les lois des Saints Pères, qu'ils soient punis selon la loi. Et si quelqu'un intervient dans la juridiction de l'Eglise, il ne s'appellera plus du nom de chrétien et il sera maudit par les 318 Saints Pères (59).

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Note 59 - Il s'agit des évêques ayant participé au premier Consile de Nicée (325), qui condamna l'arianisme. Selon certaines sources, ils étaient moins nombreux (on a conservé une liste de signatures portant 220 noms).

(4)

SUDEBNIK

In the year 1497, in the month of September, the Grand Prince of all Rus' Ivan Vasilievic, with his children and boyars, compiled a code of law on how boyars and major-domos (okolnichii) are to administer justice.

Article 1. Boyars and major-domos are to administer justice. Secretaries (djaki) also shall be present at the court of boyars and major-domos. Neither the boyars, the major-domos nor the secretaries are to receive bribes for a judgement or participating in the judging of a case. Likewise no judge is to receive a bribe for a judgement. And no one is to use the court for purposes of [personal] revenge or favor.

Article 2. And if a plaintiff shall come to a boyar, he is not to dismiss the plaintiffs [sic], but shall give a hearing in all matters to all plaintiffs for whom it is proper. But whenever there is a plaintiff whom it is not proper for him to hear, he shall inform the Grand Prince or send him (the plaintiff) to whomever has been ordered to administer such people.

Article 3. Both the boyar and secretary are to take from the guilty party, whether plaintiff or defendant, out of a ruble case: the boyar two altyns, the secretary eight dengi. And if the case involves more than a ruble or less, the boyar shall take [fees] in the same proportion.

Concerning Fees for Judicial Duels

Article 4. And if a case is to be tried by judicial duel but the parties become reconciled without having stood in the dueling field, the boyar and the secretary are to take [fees] in the same proportion: the boyar two altyns per ruble, the secretary eight dengi; but the major-domo and secretary and the bailiffs (nedel'shchiki) shall be paid no judicial duel fees.

Article 5. And should the parties, having stood in the dueling field, become reconciled, the boyar and secretary are to take their fees in the same proportion; the major-domo, one quarter-ruble and the secretary four altyns and one denga; the bailiff one quarter-ruble and a viashchee fee of two altyns.

Article 6. And if they fight a judicial duel over a question of loan or physical violence, the boyar and secretary shall take from the losing party a protiven' fee based on plaintiff's damages, the major-domo, one half-ruble, his secretary one quarter-ruble, and the bailiff one half-ruble plus a viashchee fee of four altyns.

Article 7. And if they shall fight in the field about arson, murder, brigandage, or theft, then the sum at issue is to be levied from the loser; the major-domo is to get from the loser one half-ruble and the [loser's] armor; the secretary, one quarter-ruble; the bailiff one half-ruble and a viashchee fee of four altyns; and the loser himself is to be given over to the boyar and secretary for punishment and fine.

Concerning Theft

Article 8. And if evidence is brought against anyone of theft, brigandage, murder, false accusation, or any other such evil deed, and he is a notorious criminal, then the boyar is to order him executed and the sum at issue paid from his property, and whatever remains of this property shall be taken by the boyar and his secretary for themselves. And the fee and fine are to be divided between the boyar and his secretary: to the boyar two altyns, to his secretary eight dengi. And if a criminal has no such property with which to pay the sum at issue, the boyar shall [nevertheless] not give him up to the plaintiff to make good plaintiff's loss, but shall order the Moscow Grand Prince's deputy and steward to have him executed.

Article 9. And the murderer of his master, or a conspirator, temple robber or kidnapper, or podymshchik or arsonist, such a notorious criminal shall not be allowed to live, but shall be put to death.

Concerning Thieves

Article 10. And if a thief be caught stealing in any way for the first time, except [in the case of] temple robbery and kidnapping [or theft accompanied by murder?] and there has been no previous accusation of other theft made against him, then he shall be punished on the market place, flogged with the knout and made to pay plaintiff's damages, and the judge shall sell him? /impose a fine upon him. And if the thief has no property with which to pay the sum at issue, then, after flogging him with the knout, they shall give him over to the plaintiff in slavery to make good plaintiff's loss, and the judge shall take nothing from him.

Article 11. And if a thief be caught a second time stealing, then he shall be executed and the sum at issue paid from his property, the remainder of his property going to the judge. And if he has no property sufficient for the satisfaction of the plaintiff's loss, he shall [nevertheless] not be given up to the plaintiff [in slavery] to cover his damages, but shall be put to death.

Article 12. And if a person be accused as a thief by five or six reputable petty nobles, after kissing the Grand Prince's cross, or by five reputable common peasant cross-kissers (wardens?), and if there be no evidence against him in a previous case that he had stolen from anyone or had paid damages for theft to anyone, then plaintiff's loss shall be taken from him without court proceedings.

Concerning Stolen Goods

Article 13. If defendant be brought with stolen goods (polichnoe) for the first time, and five or six men swear, after kissing the Grand Prince's cross, that the defendant is a known thief and has stolen more than once before, then he shall be executed and the sum at issue/plaintiff's loss paid from his property.

Concerning Testimony of Thieves

Article 14. And whomever a thief shall accuse, he shall be interrogated; if the accused has in the past been charged with theft, and supporting evidence given, he shall be tortured on accusation of theft; if there has been no previous charge, supported by evidence, of any sort against him, then the thief's accusations shall not be given [full] credence and he (the accused) shall be let out on bail pending further investigation.

Concerning the Written Court Decision (pravaja gramota)

Article 15. For affixing a seal on a court decision the fee shall be nine dengi per ruble, and the secretary, for signing it, shall receive one altyn per ruble, and the scribe who writes up the decision shall receive three dengi per ruble.

Concerning the Record of Trial (dokladnyj spisok)

Article 16. And the boyar shall affix his seal to the trial record, and the secretary shall sign it. And for [each] record the boyar shall take one altyn per ruble; the secretary, for signing it, four dengi per ruble; and the scribe, who writes up the record, two dengi per ruble.

Concerning Court Decisions on Slaves

Article 17. And for a written court decision and for a manumission (otpustnye) of a male or female slave the boyar shall receive, for affixing his seal, nine dengi a head; the secretary, for signing, one altyn a head, and the scribe, who writes up the decision or manumission, three dengi a head.

Concerning the Slave Manumission

Article 18. And if anyone presents a manumission without reporting to the boyar and without the secretary's signature, or, in towns, without reporting to the vicegerent who is a boyar holding full jurisdictional grant, then such manumission is not valid, except when the master (gosudar') with his own hand shall write it, and then said manumission is valid.

Concerning Unjust Court Procedure

Article 19. And whomever a boyar without [proper] trial declares in the wrong, and, with the secretary, issues a written court decision against him, then that decision shall be invalid, and that which was taken [shall be] returned. But the boyar and secretary shall pay no fine, and the parties shall commence proceedings anew.

Concerning the Decree to Vicegerents

Article 20. And city vicegerents and rural vicegerents who hold limited jurisdictional grants shall not release a male or female slave without formal report [to higher authorities], nor issue documents returning runaway slaves to their masters. Likewise they shall not issue to a male or female slave a court decision against the master without reference up, nor issue a manumission to a male or female slave.

Concerning the Grand Prince

Article 21. And for the administration of justice by the Grand Prince and his children the same shall be taken from the guilty party as for the boyar court, [to wit,] two altyns per ruble, to whomever the Grand Prince shall order.

Concerning the Written Court Decision

Article 22. For a written court decision the seal-keeper of the Grand Prince and of the Grand Prince's children shall receive nine dengi per ruble for [affixing his] seal; the secretary shall receive an altyn per ruble for signing; the scribe, who writes up the decision, three dengi per ruble.

Article 23. And from a male or female slave the seal-keeper shall take, for a written court decision, nine dengi a head; the secretary shall take, for signing, an altyn a head; the scribe, who writes up the decision, three dengi a head.

Concerning the Record of Trial

Article 24. And the record of trial for reporting up to the Grand Prince and to his children shall be stamped by the seal-keeper of the Grand Prince and by the seal-keeper of his children. For affixing the seal upon such record he shall take nine dengi per ruble; the secretary, for signing, shall take an altyn per ruble; and the scribe, who writes it up, shall receive two dengi per ruble.

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Concerning Record(s) of Default Judgments

Article 25. And for [recording] a default judgment the seal-keeper shall receive an altyn per ruble; the secretary, for signing it, also an altyn per ruble; and the scribe shall take two dengi per ruble.

Concerning Court Summons

Article 26. And for summonses the secretary shall take, for his signature, two dengi apiece. And for postponements the secretary shall take, for his signature, three dengi per ruble. And the scribes shall take two dengi per ruble for writing it up. And if the plaintiff [or] defendant both desire a postponement, each shall pay one half the cost of signing and writing it up, plus a riding-distance fee, (xozhenoe), to the bailiff. And if a plaintiff or defendant does not answer a summons, and sends for a postponement, he alone shall bear the costs of both the summons and the postponement, and the service fee. And the ministers shall keep the summonses in their possession.

Concerning Default Judgments

Article 27. And when time comes to issue default judgments, the ministers shall themselves gather together the summonses, and, having themselves sorted them out, they shall order the scribes to issue default judgments and write out postponements. And the scribes [on their own initiative] shall issue no summons. And the default judgments shall be issued the eighth day [after the date set in the summons and the failure of a party to appear in court].

Concerning Bailiff Warrants

Article 28. And for a bailiff's warrant the seal-keeper is to be paid from [and according to] the bailiff's riding-distance fee. When, according to the warrant, the bailiff is paid one ruble, the secretary takes an altyn from the bailiff's ruble for signing, and the seal-keeper also takes an altyn from it for affixing the seal. If the riding-distance fee to any city is more than a ruble, or less, the secretary and the seal-keeper shall take [fees] in the same proportion. And if the sum in dispute is less than the riding-distance fee, the secretary shall not sign such warrant; and without bailiffs the ministers shall likewise not sign warrants. And no matter how many parties there are to a suit (lit., how many portions [into which the total fee is divided] there are in the warrant), the bailiff shall have a single riding-distance fee to that city for which the warrant is drawn.

Article 29. And the walking-distance fee for the bailiff shall be ten dengi in Moscow and double this sum for an investigation; they shall take no additional fee for [placing parties on] bond. And the bailiff shall have a riding-distance fee for any other city [besides Moscow], and double this sum for an investigation.

Decree on Riding-distance Fees

Article 30. And the riding-distance fee from Moscow to Kolomna is one half-ruble; to Kashira one half-ruble; to Khotun' ten altyns; to Serpuxov one half-ruble; to Tarusa twenty altyns; to Aleksin twenty-five altyns; to Kaluga one ruble; to Jaroslavec one half-ruble; to Vereja one half-ruble; to Borovsk a half-ruble; to Vyshegorod a half-ruble; to Kremensk twenty altyns; to Mozaisk one half-ruble, and to Medyn' twenty-five altyns; to Vjazma one and one-half rubles; to Zvenigorod one-fifth of a ruble (two grivny); to Vorotynsk forty altyns; to Odoev forty altyns; to Kozel'sk one ruble and a quarter-ruble; to Belev the same; to Mezeck forty altyns; to Obolensk one half-ruble; to Dmitrov ten altyns; to Radonezh one quarter-ruble; to Perejaslavl' twenty altyns; to Rostov one ruble; to Jaroslavl' one ruble and one quarter-ruble; to Vologda two and one-half rubles; to Beloozero two and one-half rubles; to Ustjug five rubles; to Vychegda seven rubles; to Dvina and to Kholmogory eight Moscow rubles; to Vladimir one ruble and one quarter-ruble; to Kostroma one and one-half rubles; to Jurev one ruble; to Suzdal' one ruble and one quarter-ruble; to Galich two and one-half rubles; to Murom one and one-half rubles; to the patrimonial estate of the Starodub princes, one and one-half rubles; to Meshchera two rubles; to Nizhnij-Novgorod two and one-half rubles; to Uglich one ruble; to Bezhickij Verx one and one-half rubles; to Romanov one ruble and one quarter-ruble; to Klin one half-ruble; to Kashin one ruble; to Tver' one ruble; to Zubcev and Opki one ruble; to Khlepnja forty altyns; to Rzheva one ruble and one quarter-ruble; to Velikij Novgorod two and one-half Moscow rubles.

Article 31. And the bailiffs themselves shall riding-distance with warrants and put them [defendants] on bond, or shall send their relatives or servants with warrants. No men hired especially for the job shall be sent by them with warrants. And riding with warrants, they are not to take anything for placing a defendant on bond.

Decree concerning bailiffs

And in whatever city a bailiff shall reside, he shall not ride in that city with warrants nor send [anyone else] with warrants to his home city in any matter.

Article 32. And whosoever shall send a bailiff after someone in a matter, whatever loss shall occur to him in this matter through deliberate delay, or whatever he shall spend as a result of a summons and a written court decision and a default judgment, the loser shall pay all [such costs) to the one adjudged right.

Article 33. And bailiffs shall not ask for or take bribes for the boyar or major-domo or for the secretary, nor shall they themselves take any bribes for putting on bond.

Article 34. And to whomever they shall deliver up a thief and order him interrogated, he (the bailiff) shall interrogate the thief zealously. And whomever a thief shall [in turn] accuse, he (the bailiff) shall tell the Grand Prince or judge who has handed the thief over to him, and shall order the thief not to accuse any person falsely. And if they send a bailiff out after thieves he shall apprehend them in lawful fashion, and he shall not favor anyone. And having taken custody of the thief he shall not release him nor shall he accept bribes, and he shall not apprehend other people.

Article 35. And whenever a bailiff has thieves in his charge, he shall not release them on bond without report, nor is he to sell the thieves.

Article 36. And if a thief be released on bond in any case whatsoever, they (the bailiffs) shall not put off the plaintiffs and defendants, but shall bring them before the judges. They shall draw up postponements and issue default decrees to peasants (Christians?) without delay and they shall take nothing from peasants (Christians?) for default judgments. And if a postponement be issued for both the parties together, he (the bailiff) shall take one walking-distance fee from both parties and besides this he shall take nothing. And in respect to his riding-distance fee, he is to be given guarantee of payment prior to the enquiry [pertaining to theft] and he is to take his riding-distance fee from the party adjudged guilty. And if a plaintiff or defendant does not appear in response [to a summons] but sends [someone else] in his place for a postponement, the bailiffs shall take their fees from him alone who comes in his place to have the case postponed.

Decree to City Vicegerents about Justice

Article 37. And into whatever city or canton there shall come a bailiff or his agent with warrant, he shall show the warrant to the local city vicegerent or rural vicegerent or their deputies. And if both litigants are of that city or canton, then he shall place them both before the city vicegerent or rural vicegerent or their deputies.

Article 38. And those boyars and petty boyars whom are given grants with full jurisdiction shall administer justice, and at their court there must be [present]: a steward (dvorskij), an elder (starosta) and outstanding citizens (lushchie ljudi). And without a steward, elder and outstanding citizens the city and rural vicegerents shall not hold court; and they are to take no bribes for administering justice, nor shall their deputies or agents take bribes for administering justice, either for their lord or for their deputy, and the tax-collectors shall also not ask for bribes in connection with judicial administration. And he (the vicegerent) is to receive [a fee] for the trial if the plaintiff wins; and he (the vicegerent) and his deputy are to receive from the loser a protiven' fee in accordance with the charters, and where there is no charter he shall have them in proportion to the sum at issue. And if plaintiff does not win his case, but is [instead] found guilty, he (the vicegerent) shall collect two altyns per ruble from the plaintiff, and his deputy shall have eight dengi per ruble. And if the case involves more than one ruble, or less than one ruble, then the fee shall be collected from the plaintiff in the same proportion. And the criminal-investigator (dovodchik) shall take his walking-distance fee and riding-distance fee and investigation expenses according to the charter. And if the case proceeds to the point of a judicial duel and the parties become reconciled [prior to the duel], he (the judge) shall have his fees according to the charter. And if they fight it out on the field, [the vicegerent] shall have his vina fee and protiven' fee according to the charter. And where there is no charter, and they become reconciled, he (the vicegerent) and his deputy shall be given a protiven'-fee of half the sum sought by the plaintiff. And if the parties fight it out on the [dueling] field in a case involving a loan or assault and battery, he shall have a fee equal to the sum sought by plaintiff. And if they fight it out on the [dueling] field in a case of arson, murder, brigandage or theft, then he shall exact the sum at issue from the defeated party, and the defeated party himself shall be subject to punishment and fine at the hands of the vicegerent and his deputy.

Decree Concerning Thieves

Article 39. And if evidence be brought against a person of theft or brigandage or murder or defamation (false accusation), or any other such evil deed, and he is a known criminal, then he (the vicegerent or judge) shall order him put to death, and shall exact the sum at issue from his estate, and what is left over of his property the vicegerent and his deputy shall take for themselves. And if the known criminal has no property with which to pay the sum at issue, then [nevertheless] he (the vicegerent) shall not hand him over to plaintiff to make up plaintiff's loss, [but] shall order him put to death.

Concerning Written Court Decisions

Article 40. And for a written court decision the boyar or petty boyar who holds a full-jurisdictional grant shall receive, together with his deputy, two and one-half altyns per ruble for affixing the seal; the secretary, who writes the court decision, shall take three dengi per ruble for writing. And if the deputy issues a written court decision he shall receive, for affixing a seal to it, two and one-half altyns per ruble for his lord and himself, and his secretary shall be paid three dengi per ruble for each copy]. And the boyar and petty boyar with a full-jurisdictional grant shall receive for a written court decision or manumission for a male or female slave, two and one-half altyns a head, from the male or female slave, for affixing the seal. And his secretary shall have three dengi a head for writing it up.

Article 41. And his deputy in local administration (na kormlenie) shall not issue a slave a written court decision without reporting to his master, nor shall he issue a manumission.

Concerning the Slave's Manumission

Article 42. And if anyone presents a manumission without report to the boyar and without the secretary's signature, or from the cities without report to the vicegerent who has the status of a petty boyar with full-jurisdictional grant, then such manumission shall be invalid unless the (slave's) master shall have written it with his own hand, [in which case] the manumission is valid.

Article 43. City and rural vicegerents who hold limited-jurisdictional grants, and deputies of the Grand Prince and of boyars who hold full-jurisdictional grants, shall not release a male or female slave without report [to the Grand Prince or higher boyar] and shall not issue a manumission; and they are not to release a thief or murderer, nor sell, punish or release any other felon without report [to the higher authorities].

Concerning Bailiffs

Article 44. And a vicegerent's bailiffs shall, according to the charter, receive walking-distance fees and riding-distance fees. And where no charter exists, such bailiff shall take walking-distance fees of four dengi, and one denga per verst riding-distance fees [outside the city], and twice this sum for investigative duties in the city and rural canton.

Article 45. And if one sends a bailiff after a city vicegerent, a rural vicegerent, or a boyar, or petty boyar, or their deputies, or the deputies of the Grand Prince, then the city vicegerent and the rural vicegerent and their deputies and the Grand Prince's deputies and criminal-investigators shall answer [the warrant or summons] and appear [at the designated time]; and if [the summoned person] does not himself appear at the designated time he shall send [someone to appear] in his place at the designated time.

Concerning Tradespeople

Article 46. And if a person buys something new, except a horse, not knowing the vendor, and if [the transaction] be known to two or three good men (dobrye ljudi, who represent the community in court), and if [subsequently those objects] are seized from him [as stolen goods], those good men shall testify in accordance with the law that defendant bought the goods at the market in their presence, then the person in whose possession [those objects] were seized is without fault and need not kiss [the cross].

Article 47. And if a person purchases [something] on foreign soil and those objects are seized [as stolen goods], and if he has as witness two or three good men who shall testify according to law that he purchased the goods in their presence at a market, then the person in whose possession [those objects] were seized is without fault and need not kiss [the cross]; and if he has no witnesses he must be made to give oath.

Concerning Witnesses' Testimony

Article 48. And when a witness shall give testimony in a case of assault or robbery or loans, then the trial procedure shall be left to the choice of the defendant; if he wishes, he may go to the [dueling] field with the witness, or, having stood on the field, he may place that for which he is being sued at the cross; [in the latter case] the plaintiff shall take what he claims as his, without kissing the cross, and the defendant shall pay the duel fees but not the loser fees. And if he does not go out on the [dueling] field but places [the sum or property demanded by plaintiff] at the cross, he shall pay the judges a fee according to the list, but shall pay no duel fees.

Article 49. And if the defendant be too old [himself to fight] against a witness, or too small, or a cripple, or a priest or a monk or a nun, or a woman, then [he or she] shall be allowed to hire a fighter against the witness, but the witness may not hire such a fighter. And whatever losses accrue to the party who wins the case, or to his witness, such losses [shall be charged] against the loser.

Article 50. And if a witness fails to appear before the judge, whether or not he has any testimony to give, then from such witness shall the sum at issue and all dues be taken. And concerning time of appearance, this witness shall deal with the sergeant-at-arms.

Article 51. And if a witness refuses to testify before the judge in [support of] the plaintiff's allegations, then the plaintiff is at fault.

Article 52. And if a woman, or small child, or an old person, or a sick person, or cripple, or priest, or monk, or nun shall bring suit against anyone or if any of these shall serve as a witness for anyone, then he is allowed to hire a substitute [for dueling]. And the litigants or witness must kiss [the cross] but the hired fighters must fight. Against these hired fighters the plaintiff or defendant [may hire] fighters [of his own, or], if he so desires, he may himself fight in the [dueling] field.

Article 53. If any person shall have another seized by a bailiff in connection with a fight or verbal insult, or a loan, and they shall not desire to go to court, and if, reporting to the judge, they become reconciled, then the judge shall take no fees from them except the [bailiff's] riding-distance or walking-distance fees.

Article 54. And if a hired worker does not serve out his period and goes away, he shall be deprived of his wages.

Concerning Loans

Article 55. And whatever merchant, departing on a business trip, shall take money or goods from another [for purposes of commerce], and on the way these goods shall, through no fault of his, be lost, for instance, shall be sunk, or burned, or seized by troops, the boyar [judge], after investigating the matter, shall order the Grand Prince's secretary to issue him a document entitling him to pay back the debt by installment, [which document shall bear) the seal of the Grand Prince, and [which document shall allow defendant] to pay plaintiff the principal without interest. But if [a merchant] shall take something to trade and then go and drink it up or through some other foolishness lose it in non-accidental fashion, such person shall be handed over to the plaintiff in slavery to make up the loss.

Article 56. And if a slave be captured by Tatar enemy troops and escapes from captivity, he shall be free and no longer the slave of his former master.

Concerning the Peasant Quitting-Time

Article 57. And peasants may leave a canton [to go to another canton], or [go] from village to village, once a year, for a week before and a week after St. George's Day in the autumn. For field living-quarters they shall pay one ruble, for forest quarters a half-ruble. And whatsoever peasant shall live one year under a given master and then leave, he shall pay one-fourth of the living-quarters' value, or if he lives two years and leaves, he shall pay one-half; if he lives three years and leaves, he shall pay three-fourths of the living-quarters' value, and if he lives four years he shall pay the full amount of living-quarters' value.

Concerning Foreigners

Article 58. And whatsoever foreigner shall bring suit against another foreigner, the defendant is free to take an oath [with cross kissing] that he is innocent, or he can lay at the cross that for which he is being sued, and plaintiff, after kissing the cross, shall take it.

Article 59. And a priest, and a deacon, and a monk, and a nun, and a sexton, and a widow, who are sustained by God's church, are to be judged by a bishop or his judge. And if a layman [is in litigation] with a church man, then a joint court shall decide the case. And if a widow is not supported by the church, but lives in her own home, then she shall not be under ecclesiastical jurisdiction.

Article 60. And if a person dies without a will and has no son, then all his personal property and lands [shall pass] to the daughter; and if he has no daughter, then his closest of kin shall inherit.

Concerning Fences

Article 61. And between villages and hamlets fences are to be erected by halves (i.e., each side putting up half the fencing), and through whose fence there shall occur damage by cattle, he whose fence it is shall pay the damages. And when meadowlands are far from villages or hamlets, then the owner of such lands shall not erect a fence, but he whose lands are ploughed fields next to the meadow shall erect the entire enclosure.

Concerning Boundaries

Article 62. And whoever shall plough up a boundary or cut down markers, be he from the lands of the Grand Prince [and trespass on those of] a boyar or a monastery, or from boyar and monastery holdings [and trespass] on the lands of the Grand Prince, or from boyar and monastery lands [and trespass] on [lands of another] boyar, or from boyar lands [and trespass] on monastery land, whosoever has ploughed up a boundary or cut down markers shall be flogged with the knout and the plaintiff shall take a ruble [fine) from him. And if peasants among themselves in a canton or village shall plough across or mow beyond a boundary, then the rural vicegerents or the estate manager shall take from him (the guilty one) two altyns in place of a ram and for bodily injury they will fine according to the person, the injury and the circumstances.

Concerning Land Litigation

Article 63. And if a boyar shall start proceedings against [another] boyar, or a monastery shall sue a monastery, or a boyar sue a monastery, or a monastery a boyar, then the case must be tried (trial must begin?) within three years and after three years action will not lie. And if a free peasant brings suit against another free peasant, or a pomeshchik (holder of land on service tenure) sues another pomeshchik who holds lands belonging to the Grand Prince, or if a free peasant or landlord's peasant sues a pomeshchik, or if a pomeshchik sues a free peasant or landlord's peasant, then the suit shall be brought within three years, and after three years action will not lie. And if a boyar or monastery are sued for lands belonging to the Grand Prince, then the case must be tried within six years, not more. And when lands are held by a bailiff pending litigation, the court shall complete the case.

Article 64. And judges reviewing a case shall have a review fee of two grivny from the party found guilty, and there shall be no review fee [for cases involving] less than one ruble. And for court records [sent up for review], and for cases dealing with land or slaves, there shall be no review fee. A review fee (an amount equal to a review fee?) shall be collected for all cases in which a judicial duel has occurred. And if a party shall declare the court record false and demands an investigation, then there shall be a review fee. And the bailiffs (podvojskim) shall receive an investigation-fee of four dengi, and it shall be collected from the loser.

Article 65. And whenever there are two city vicegerents in a city or two rural vicegerents in a canton, they shall have fees in accordance with this document, both [jointly receiving the fee] for a single vicegerent, and their deputies the fees of a single deputy, and they shall share the fees equally.

Concerning the Full-Slavery Document

Article 66. By a full-slavery document [one becomes] a slave. By taking the position of a deputy or village steward, one becomes a slave whether with formal report [to higher authorities] or without it, along with one's wife and one's children, provided they live under the same master; and those children who shall have begun living under another master, or by themselves, shall not become slaves; and by being a city steward [one does not become] a slave. Whoever marries a female slave becomes himself a slave; a woman marrying a slave becomes herself a slave. Slaves may pass by dowry and by will.

Concerning Bribes and Testimony of Witnesses

Article 67. And it shall be ordered proclaimed in the markets in Moscow and all cities of the Moscow and Novgorod territories, and decreed in all cantons that the plaintiff and defendant shall not offer bribes to judges and bailiffs and that witnesses shall not testify to what they have not seen, and shall tell only the truth concerning what they have seen. And if a witness falsely testifies concerning something he has not seen, and this is later discovered, then this witness shall pay the sum at issue and damages.

Fees for Judicial Duels

Article 68. And to the dueling field there shall ride a major-domo and a secretary, and the major-domo and secretary shall enquire of the litigants, plaintiff and defendant, who [of the people present] are their backers and sureties; and whoever are designated as backers and sureties shall be ordered to stand [on the sidelines], and backers and sureties shall have no armor, oak clubs or sticks in their possession. And if any outsider stand at the field, the majordomo and his secretary shall send them away. And if such outsiders do not go away, the major-domo and secretary shall order the sum at issue and fees paid by them and order them placed on bond, seized and brought before the Grand Prince.

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Catherine the Great, Instruction (‘NAKAZ’)

to the Legislative Commission of 1767. O Lord my God, hearken unto me, and instruct me; that I may administer Judgment unto thy People; as thy sacred Laws direct - to judge with Righteousness! THE INSTRUCTIONS TO THE COMMISSIONERS FOR COMPOSING A NEW CODE OF LAWS

1. The Christian Law teaches us to do mutual Good to one another, as much as possibly we can.

2. Laying this down as a fundamental Rule prescribed. by that Religion, which has taken, or ought to take Root in the Hearts of the whole People; we cannot but suppose, that every honest Man in the Community is, or will be, desirous of seeing his native Country at the very Summit of Happiness, Glory, Safety, and Tranquillity.

3. And that every Individual Citizen in particular must wish to see himself protected by Laws, which should not distress him in his Circumstances, but, on the Contrary, should defend him from all Attempts of others, that are repugnant to this fundamental Rule.

4. In order therefore to proceed to a speedy Execution of what We expect from such a general Wish, We, fixing the Foundation upon the above first-mentioned Rule, ought to begin with an Inquiry into the natural Situation of this Empire.

5. For those Laws have the greatest Conformity with Nature, whose particular Regulations are best adapted to the Situation and Circumstances of the People, for whom they are instituted.

This natural Situation is described in the three following Chapters.

Chapter 1:

6. Russia is an European State.

7. This is clearly demonstrated by the following Observations: The Alterations which Peter the Great undertook in Russia succeeded with the greater Ease, because the Manners, which prevailed at that Time, and had been introduced amongst us by a Mixture of different Nations, and the Conquest of foreign Territories, were quite unsuitable to the Climate. Peter the First, by introducing the Manners and Customs of Europe among the European People in his Dominions, found at that Time such Means as even he himself was not sanguine enough to expect.

Chapter 2:

8. The Possessions of the Russian Empire extend upon the terrestrial Globe to 32 Degrees of Latitude, and to 165 of Longitude.

9. The Sovereign is absolute; for there is no other authority but that which centers in his single Person, that can act with a Vigour proportionate to the Extent of such a vast Dominion.

10. The Extent of the Dominion requires an absolute Power to be vested in that Person who rules over it. It is expedient so to be, that the quick Dispatch of Affairs, sent from distant Parts, might make ample Amends for the Delay occasioned by the Distance of the Places.

11. Every other Form of Government whatsoever would not only have been prejudicial to Russia, but would even have proved its entire Ruin.

12. Another Reason is; That it is better to be subject to the Laws under one Master, than to be subservient to many.

13. What is the true End of Monarchy? Not to deprive People of their natural Liberty; but to correct their Actions, in order to attain the supreme Good.

14. The Form of Government, therefore, which best attains this End, and at the same Time sets less Bounds than others to natural Liberty, is that which coincides with the Views and Purposes of rational Creatures, and answers the End, upon which we ought to fix a steadfast Eye in the Regulations of civil Polity.

15. The Intention and the End of Monarchy, is the Glory of the Citizens, of the State, and of the Sovereign.

16. But, from this Glory, a Sense of Liberty arises in a People governed by a Monarch; which may produce in these States as much Energy in transacting the most important Affairs, and may contribute as much to the Happiness of the Subjects, as even Liberty itself.

Chapter 3:

17. Of the Safety of the Institutions of Monarchy.

18. The intermediate Powers, subordinate to, and depending upon the supreme Power, form the essential Part of monarchical Government.

19. I have said, that the intermediate Powers, subordinate and depending, proceed from the supreme Power; as in the very Nature of the Thing the Sovereign is the Source of all imperial and civil Power.

20. The Laws, which form the Foundation of the State, send out certain Courts of Judicature, through which, as through smaller Streams, the Power of the Government is poured out, and diffused.

21. The Laws allow these Courts of Judicature to remonstrate, that such or such an Injunction is unconstitutional, and prejudicial, obscure, and impossible to be carried into Execution; and direct, beforehand, to which Injunction one ought to pay Obedience, and in what Manner one ought to conform to it. These Laws undoubtedly constitute the firm and immoveable Basis of every State.

Chapter 4:

22. There must be a political Body, to whom the Care and strict Execution of these Laws ought to be confided.

23. This Care, and strict Execution of the Laws, can be nowhere so properly fixed as in certain Courts of Judicature, which announce to the People the newly-made Laws, and revive those, which are forgotten, or obsolete.

24. And it is the Duty of these Courts of Judicature to examine carefully those Laws which they receive from the Sovereign, and to remonstrate, if they find any Thing in them repugnant to the fundamental Constitution of the State, &c. which has been already remarked above in the third Chapter, and twenty-first Article.

25. But if they find nothing in them of that Nautre, they enter them in the Code of Laws already established in the State, and publish them to the whole Body of the People.

26. In Russia the Senate is the political Body, to which the Care and due Execution of the Laws is confided.

27. All other Courts of Judicature may, and ought to remonstrate with the same Propriety, to the Senate, and even to the Sovereign himself, as was already mentioned above.

28. Should any One inquire, wherein the Care and due Execution of the Laws consists? I answer, That the Care, and due Execution of the Laws, produces particular Instructions; in consequence of which, the before-mentioned Courts of Judicature, instituted to the End that, by their Care, the Will of the Sovereign might be obeyed in a Manner conformable to the fundamental Laws and Constitution of the State, are obliged to act, in the Discharge of their Duty, according to the Rules prescribed.

29. These Instructions will prevent the People from transgressing the Injunctions of the Sovereign with impunity; but, at the same Time, will protect them from the Insults, and ungovernable Passions of others.

30. For, on the one Hand, they justify the Penalties prepared for those who transgress the Laws; and, on the other, they confirm the Justice of that Refusal to enter Laws repugnant to the good Order of the State, amongst those which are already approved of, or to act by those Laws in the Administration of Justice, and the general Business of the whole Body of the People.

Chapter 5:

31. Of the Situation of the People in general.

32. It is the greatest Happiness for a Man to be so circumstanced, that, if his Passions should prompt him to be mischievous, he should still think it more for his Interest not to give Way to them.

33. The Laws ought to be so framed, as to secure the Safety of every Citizen as much as possible.

34. The Equality of the Citizens consists in this; that they should all be subject to the same Laws.

35. This Equality requires Institutions so well adapted, as to prevent the Rich from oppressing those who are not so wealthy as themselves, and converting all the Charges and Employments intrusted to them as Magistrates only, to their own private Emolument.

36. General or political Liberty does not consist in that licentious Notion, That a Man may do whatever he pleases.

37. In a State or Assemblage of People that live together in a Community, where there are Laws, Liberty can only consist in doing that which every One ought to do, and not to be constrained to do that which One ought not to do.

38. A Man ought to form in his own Mind an exact and clear Idea of what Liberty is. Liberty is the Right of doing whatsoever the Laws allow: And if any one Citizen could do what the Laws forbid, there would be no more Liberty; because others would have an equal Power of doing the same.

39. The political Liberty of a Citizen is the Peace of Mind arising from the Consciousness, that every Individual enjoys his peculiar Safety; and in order that the People might attain this Liberty, the Laws ought to be so framed, that no one Citizen should stand in Fear of another; but that all of them should stand in Fear of the same Laws.

Chapter 6:

40. Of Laws in general.

4I. Nothing ought to be forbidden by the Laws, but what may be prejudicial, either to every Individual in particular, or to the whole Community in general.

42. All Actions, which comprehend nothing of this Nature, are in nowise cognizable by the Laws; which are made only with the View of procuring the greatest possible Advantage and Tranquillity to the People, who live under their Protection.

43. To preserve Laws from being violated, they ought to be so good, and so well furnished with all Expedients, tending to procure the greatest possible Good to the People; that every Individual might be fully convinced, that it was his Interest, as well as Duty, to preserve those Laws inviolable.

44. And this is the most exalted Pitch of Perfection which we ought to labor to attain to.

45. Many Things rule over Mankind. Religion, the Climate, Laws, the Maxims received from Government, the Example of past Ages, Manners, and Customs.

46. Hence results a general Sense in the People, similar to these Causes.

47. For Instance, Nature and Climate domineer almost alone over the savage People.

48. Customs govern the Chinese.

49. The Laws tyrannise with savage Ferocity over the Japanese.

50. Manners heretofore took the Lead amongst the Lacedemonians.

51. Maxims of Government, and their ancient Manners bore the Sway at Rome.

52. The different Characters of Nations are blended with Virtues and Vices, with good and bad Qualities.

53. That Composition, or Admixture, might be pronounced happy, from which many and great Blessings spring; though we frequently cannot even conjecture the Cause, from whence they should issue.

54. To prove this, I here produce in Evidence different Examples of different Facts. The Spaniards were at all Times remarkably eminent for their Good Faith. History furnishes us with remarkable Instances of their Fidelity in keeping a Pledge intrusted to their Care: They frequently submitted to Death, rather than betray their Trust, and they still retain this Fidelity, for which they were formerly so renowned. All Nations, who trade in Cadiz intrust their Fortunes to the Spaniards; and, hitherto, have had no Reason to repent of their Confidence. But this amazing Quality, blended with their Laziness, forms such a strange Medly, as produces Effects prejudicial to themselves. The other European Nations carry on all that Trade, before their very Eyes, which belongs properly to their Monarchy only.

55. The Character of the Chinese is of a different Complexion, and forms a Contrast which is the very Reverse of that of the Spaniards. The Precariousness of their Lives (arising from the very Nature of their Soil and Climate) produces in them an Activity almost inconceivable; and so immoderate a Fondness for Gain, that no trading Nation can trust them. This known Perfidy of theirs, has preserved to them the sole Trade of Japan. Not one of the European Merchants durst ever venture to engage in the Japan Trade under their Names, though they might have done it with great Ease through their maritime Provinces.

56. By what I have here advanced, I meant not, in the least, to abridge that infinite Distance which must ever subsist between Vices and Virtues. God forbid! My Intention was only to show, that all the political Vices are not moral Vices; and that all the moral Vices are not political Ones. This Distinction ought to be known and carefully attended to, that in making the Laws nothing may be introduced in them which is contrary to the general Sense of a Nation.

57. The Legislation ought to adapt its Laws to the general Sense of a Nation. We do nothing so well as what we do freely and uncontrolled, and following the natural Bent of our own Inclinations.

58. In order to introduce better Laws, it is essentially necessary to prepare the Minds of the People for their Reception. But that it may never be pleaded in Excuse, that it is impose carry even the most useful Affairs into Execution, because the Minds of the People are not yet prepared for it; you must, in that Case, take the Trouble upon yourselves to prepare them; and, by these Means, you will already have done a great Part of the Work.

59. Laws are the peculiar and distinct Institutions of the Legislator; but Manners and Customs are the Institutions of the whole Body of the People.

60. Consequently, if there should be a Necessity for making great Alterations amongst the People for their greater Benefit, that must be corrected by Laws, which has been instituted by Laws, and that must be amended by Custom, which has been introduced by Custom; and it is extreme bad Policy to alter that by Law, which ought to be altered by Custom.

61. There are Means of preventing the Growth of Crimes, and these are the Punishments inflicted by the Laws. At the same Time there are Means for introducing an Alteration in Customs, and these are Examples.

62. Besides, the more a People have an Intercourse with one another, the more easy it is for them to introduce a change in their Customs.

63. In a Word, every Punishment, which is not inflicted through Necessity, is tyrannical. The Law has not its Source merely from Power. Things indifferent in their Nature, do come under the Cognizance of the Laws.

...

Chapter 11:

250. A Society of Citizens, as well as every Thing else, requires a certain fixed Order: There ought to be some to govern, and others to obey.

251. And this is the Origin of every Kind of Subjection; which feels itself more or less alleviated, in Proportion to the Situation of the Subjects.

252. And, consequently, as the Law of Nature commands Us to take as much Care, as lies in Our Power, of the Prosperity of all the People; we are obliged to alleviate the Situation of the Subjects, as much as sound Reason will permit.

253. And therefore, to shun all Occasions of reducing People to a State of Slavery, except the utmost Necessity should inevitably oblige us to do it; in that Case, it ought not to be done for our own Benefit; but for the Interest of the State: Yet even that Case is extremely uncommon.

254. Of whatever Kind Subjection may be, the civil Laws ought to guard, on the one Hand, against the Abuse of Slavery, and, on the other, against the Dangers which may arise from it.

255. Unhappy is that Government, which is compelled to institute severe Laws.

256. Peter the Great ordained, in the Year 1722, that Persons who were insane in Mind, and those who tortured their Vassals, should be put under the Tutelage of Guardians. This Injunctions is executed with regard to the Objects of the first Part of it; the Reason why it is not put in Force with respect to the Objects of the last Part, is unknown.

257. In Sparta Slaves could not obtain the least Satisfaction in the Courts of Judicature: And the Extreme of their Unhappiness consisted in this, that they were not only the Slaves on one individual Citizen, but at the same Time of the whole Community.

258. Among the Romans, in Case of maiming a Slave, Regard was only paid to the Damage done by it to the Master. It was esteemed equal by them, whether a Wound was inflicted on a Beast, or on a Slave: Nothing was taken into Consideration, but only the Diminution in the Price of each: And even that turned to the Interest of the Master, not of the injured.

259. Among the Athenians, whoever treated a Slave with Cruelty, was punished with great Severity.

260. A great Number of Slaves ought not to be enfranchised all at once, nor by a general Law.

261. A Law may be productive of public Benefit, which gives some private Property to a Slave.

262. Let us finish all this, by repeating that fundamental Rule; that the government which most resembles that of Nature, is that, whose particular Disposition answers best to the Disposition of the People, for whom it is instituted.

263. However it is still highly necessary to prevent those Causes, which so frequently incited Slaves to rebel against their masters; but till these Causes are discovered; it is impossible to prevent the like accidents by Laws; though the Tranquillity, both of the one and of the other, depends upon it.

Chapter 12:

264. Of the Propagation of the human Species in a State.

265. Russia is not only greatly deficient in the number of her Inhabitants; but at the same Time, extends her Dominion over immense Tracts of Land; which are neither peopled nor improved. And therefore, in a Country so circumstanced, too much Encouragement can never be given to the Propagation of the human Species.

266. The Peasants generally have twelve, fifteen, and even twenty Children by one Marriage; but it rarely happens, that one Fourth of these ever attains to the Age of Maturity. There must therefore be some Fault, either in their Feeding, in their Way of Living, or Method of Education, which occasions this prodigious Loss, and disappoints the Hopes of the Empire. How flourishing would the State of this Empire be, if we could but ward off, or prevent this fatal Evil by proper Regulations!

267. You must add too to this, that two Hundred Years are now elapsed, since a Disease unknown to our Ancestors was imported from America, and hurried on the Destruction of the human Race. This Disease spreads wide its mournful and destructive Effects in many of our Provinces. The utmost Care ought to be taken of the Health of the Citizens. It would be highly prudent, therefore, to stop the Progress of this Disease by the Laws.

268. Those of Moses may serve here for an Example. [Leviticus. chap. XIII.]

269. It seems too, that the Method of exacting their Revenues, newly invented y the Lords, diminished both the Inhabitants, and the Spirit of Agriculture in Russia. Almost all the Villages are heavily taxed. The Lords, who seldom or never reside in their Villages, lay an Impost on every Head of one, two, and even five Rubles, without the least Regard to the Means by which their Peasants may be able to raise this Money.

270. It is highly necessary that the Law should prescribe a Rule to the Lords, for a more judicious Method of raising their Revenues; and oblige them to levy such a Tax, as tends least to separate the Peasant from his House and Family; this would be the Means by which Agriculture would become more extensive, and Population be more increased in the Empire.

271. Even now some Husbandmen do not see their Houses for fifteen Years together, and yet pay the Tax annually to their respective Lords; which they procure in Towns at a vast Distance from their Families, and wander over the whole Empire for that Purpose.

272. The more happily a People live under a Government, the more easily the Number of the Inhabitants increases.

273. Countries, which abound with Meadow and Pasture Lands, are generally very thinly peopled; the Reason is, that few can find Employment in those Places: But arable Lands are much more populous; because they furnish Employment for a much greater Number of People.

274. Wherever the Inhabitants can enjoy the Conveniences of Life, there Population will certainly increase.

275. But a Country, which is so overwhelmed with Taxes, that the People, with all their Care and Industry, can with the utmost Difficulty find Means for procuring a bare Subsistance, will, in length of Time, be deserted by its Inhabitants.

276. Where a People is poor for no other Reason, but because they live under oppressive Laws, and esteem their Lands not so much a Fund for their Maintenance, as a Pretence for their Oppression; in such Places, the Inhabitants cannot increase. They have not the Means of Subsistence sufficient for themselves, how then can they think of yielding a Part of it to their Offspring? They are not able to take Care of themselves, even in their own Illness; how then can they bring up, and look after Creatures, which are in a State of continual Illness, that is, Infancy? They bury their Money in the Earth, and are afraid to let it circulate; and they fear to appear rich, because their Wealth might expose them to Persecution and Oppression.

277. The Ease of asserting, and the Incapacity for thoroughly examining an Affair, have induced many to affirm, That the poorer the Subjects live, the more numerous their Families will be; and the heavier the Taxes are, the more readily they will find the Means of paying them. These are two Sophisms, which ever did, and ever will bring Destruction upon Monarchies.

278. The Evil is almost incurable, when the Depopulation of the Country has been of long standing, from some internal Defect in the Constitution, and a bad Administration. The People drop off there by an imperceptible and almost habitual Malady. Born in Languor and Misery, under the Oppression, or false Maxims adopted by Government, they see themselves destroyed frequently, without perceiving the Causes of their Destruction.

279. In order to re-establish a State stripped in such a Manner of its Inhabitants, it will be in vain to expect Assistance from the Children, which may be born in future. This Hope is totally over: People in their Desert have neither Courage nor Industry. Lands, which might feed a whole People, can scarce yield Food for a single Family. The common People in those Parts have no Share even in that, which is the Cause of their Misery; that is, the Lands which lie fallow and uncultivated, with which the Country abounds; either some of the principal Citizens, or the Sovereign, insensibly engross the whole Extent of these desert Countries. The ruined Families have left their Oppressors the whole for Pastures, and the laborious Man has nothing.

280. In such Circumstances, the same Method ought to be followed through the whole Extent of that Country, which the Romans practiced in one Part of theirs. To do, in a Scarcity of Inhabitants, what they did in a Superfluity of them, to divide the Lands amongst the Families which had none, and to enable them to cultivate and improve them. This Division ought to be made without Loss of Time, as soon as ever one Man would undertake it on those Terms, that not a Moment might be lost before the Work is begun.

281. Julius Caesar gave Premiums to those who had many Children. The Laws of Augustus were more forcible. He imposed Penalties upon those who refused to marry, and increased the Premiums of those who married, and also of those who had Children. But these Laws are not consistent with those of our orthodox Religion.

282. In some Countries particular Privileges are granted to married Persons: For Instance, that the Overseers, and petty justices in Villages, must be elected out of the married People only. Unmarried Persons, and those who have no Children, are neither qualified to transact public Business, nor to preside in the Village Courts. He who has the most Children, takes the highest Place in that Court; and that Peasant, who has more than five Sons, is exempt from all Taxes.

283. Among the Romans, unmarried People were excluded from receiving Legacies bequeathed by the Last Wills of Strangers; and married Persons, who had no Children, were entitled only to a Half.

284. The Benefits which a Husband and Wife are able to leave reciprocally by Will to each other, were limited by Law. If they had Children by one another, they could bequeath each other their whole Substance; but, if they had none, they only inherit the tenth Part after the Death of either, in consideration of their Marriage. And if they had Children by a former Marriage, they were allowed to bequeath each other as many tenth Parts as they had Children.

285. If a Husband absented himself from his Wife, upon any other Account than that of the public Service, he was not allowed to inherit her Effects.

286. In some Countries, a certain Pension is appointed for those who have ten Children; and a larger for those who had twelve. But the Point does not consist in rewarding Fecundity only in married People; their Lives ought also to be made as easy as possible; that is, the Careful and Industrious ought to enjoy the Means of supporting themselves and their Families.

287. Temperance in the People conduces greatly to Population.

288. It is generally ordained by the Law, that Fathers should unite their Children in Marriage. But what Advantage will arise from this, if Oppression and Avarice should, in an illegal Manner, usurp the Authority of a Father? Fathers ought rather to be encouraged to unite their Children in Marriage, and not to be debarred the Power of marrying their Children according to their own Judgment.

289. With regard to Marriages, it would be highly necessary, and of great Importance, to define once clearly and with Certainty, the Degree of Consanguinity in which Matrimony is allowed, and the Degree in which it is forbid.

290. There are Countries where the Law [in case of Want of Inhabitants] gives the Freedom of Citizens to Foreigners; or those who are illegitimate, or born only from a Mother who is a Citizen: But when they have acquired a sufficient Number of Inhabitants by these Means, they admit them no longer.

291. The Savages of Canada burn their Prisoners of War; but if they have any vacant Huts, with which they can accommodate the Prisoners, they incorporate them with their own Nation.

292. There are People who, after the Conquest of other Nations, unite in Marriage with the Conquered: Thus they attach the conquered People to themselves, and increase their Numbers.

Chapter 13:

293. Of handicraft Trades, and Commerce.

294. There can be neither skillful Handicraftsmen, nor a firmly-established Commerce, where Agriculture is neglected, or carried on with Supineness and Negligence.

295. Agriculture can never flourish there, where no Persons have any Property of their own.

296. This is founded upon a very simple Rule: Every Man will take more Care of his own Property, than of that which belongs to another; and will not exert his utmost Endeavours upon that, which he has Reason to fear another may deprive him of.

297. Agriculture is the most laborious Employment a Man can undertake. The more the Climate induces a Man to shun this Trouble, the more the Laws ought to animate him to it.

298. In China, the Emperor Bogdo-Chan is informed annually of that Husbandman, who has distinguished himself most in his Profession, and makes him a Mandarine of the Eighth Order. That Sovereign begins every Year to open the Ground with a Plough, with his own Hands, and with the most magnificent Ceremonies.

299. It would not be improper to give a Premium to those Husbandmen, who bring their Fields into better Order than others.

300. And to the Handicraftsmen, who distinguished themselves most by their Care and Skill.

301. This Regulation will produce a Progress in the Arts, in all Parts of the Country. It was of Service, even in our own Times, in establishing very important Manufactories.

302. There are Countries, where a Treatise of Agriculture, published by the Government, is lodged in every Church, from which the Peasant may be able to get the better of his Difficulties, and draw proper Advantage from the Instructions it contains.

303. There are Nations inclined to Laziness. In order to exterminate Laziness in the Inhabitants, arising from the Climate, such Laws are to be made, as should deprive those, who refuse to work, of the Means of Subsistence.

304. All Nations inclined to Laziness are arrogant in their Behavior; for they who do not work esteem themselves, in some Measure, Rulers over those who labor.

305. Nations who have given themselves up to Idleness, are generally proud: We might turn the Effect against the Cause from which it proceeds, and destroy Laziness by Pride itself.

306. For Government may be as strongly supported by Ambition, as it may be endangered by Pride. In asserting this, we need only represent to ourselves, on the one Hand, the innumerable Benefits which result from Ambition; such as, Industry, Arts, and Sciences, Politeness, Taste, &c.; and, on the other, the infinite Number of Evils arising from Pride, in some Nations; such as Laziness, Poverty, Disregard for every thing; the Destruction of Nations, who accidentally fall into their Power, and afterwards the Ruin of themselves.

307. As Pride induces some to shun Labor, so Ambition impels others to excel all the rest in Workmanship.

308. View every Nation with Attention, and you will find, that arrogant Pride and Laziness, most commonly, go Hand in Hand together.

309. The People of Achim are haughty and lazy: Such amongst them as have no Slaves of their own, hire one, if it be only to carry a small Bag of Rice a hundred Paces. They would look upon it as a Disgrace, if they should carry it themselves.

310. The Women in India think it a Scandal to learn to read: This Business, they say, belongs to the female Slaves, who chant the Hymns in their Temples.

311. A Man is not poor, because he has nothing; but because he will do no Work. He who has no Estate, but will work, may live as well as he, who has an annual Income of a Hundred Rubles, but will do no Work.

312. A Tradesman who has taught his Children his Art, has given them such an Estate, as increases in proportion to their Number.

313. Agriculture is the first and principal Labor, which ought to be encouraged in the People: The next is, the manufacturing our own Produce.

314. Machines, which serve to shorten Labor in the mechanic Arts, are not always useful. If a Piece of Work, wrought with the Hands, can be afforded at a Price, equally advantageous to the Merchant and the Manufacturer; in this Case, Machines which shorten Labor, that is, which diminish the Number of Workmen, will be greatly prejudicial to a populous Country.

315. Yet, we ought to distinguish between what we manufacture for our Home-consumption, and what we manufacture for Exportation into foreign Countries.

316. Too much Use cannot be made of this Kind of Machines in our Manufactures, which we export to other Nations; who do, or may receive the same Kind of Goods, from our Neighbors, or other People; especially those who are in the same Situation with ourselves.

317. Commerce flies from Places where it meets oppression, and settles where it with Protection.

318. The Athenians did not carry on that extensive Commerce, which might have been expected from the Labor of Slaves, the great Number of their Seamen, the Power which they had over the States of Greece, and, what exceeded all, the excellent Regulations of Solon.

319. In many Countries, where all the Taxes are farmed, the Collection of the Royal Revenues ruins Commerce, not only by its Inequality, Oppression, and extreme Exactions, but also by the Difficulties it occasions, and the Formalities it requires.

320. In other Places, where the Duties or Customs are collected upon the good Faith of the Importers, there is a wide Difference in respect of their Convenience for Traffic. One Word in Writing transacts the greatest Business. The Merchant is under no Necessity of losing Time in Attendance; nor obliged to employ Clerks, on purpose to remove the Difficulties started by the Financiers, or be compelled to submit to them.

321. The Liberty of Trading does not consist in a Permission to Merchants of doing whatever they please; this would be rather the Slavery of Commerce: What cramps the Trader, does not cramp the Trade. In free Countries the Merchant meets with innumerable Obstacles; but in despotic Governments he is not near so much thwarted by the Laws. England prohibits the Exportation of its Wool; she has ordained Coals to be imported to the Capital by Sea; she has prohibited the Exportation of Horses fit for Stallions; she obliges Ships, which Trade from her Plantations in America into Europe, to anchor first in England. By these, and such like Prohibitions, she cramps the Merchant; but it is for the Benefit of Commerce.

322. Wherever there is Trade, there are Custom-houses also.

323. The Object of Trade, is the Exportation and Importation of Goods, for the Advantage of the State: The Object of the Custom-houses, is a certain Duty, exacted from the same Exportation and Importation of Goods, for the Advantage likewise of the State; for this Reason a State ought to preserve an exact Impartiality between the Custom-house and the Trade, and to make such proper Regulations, that these two might never clash with each other: Then the People will enjoy there free Liberty of Commerce.

324. England has no Tariff, or fixed Book of Rates with other Nations: Her Tariff changes, as we may say, at every Session of Parliament, by the particular Duties, which she lays on, or takes off.

Strongly jealous of the Trade which is carried on in Her Country, She rarely engages herself in Treaties with other States, and depends on no Laws, but Her own.

325. Some Countries have made Laws, perfectly well calculated to humble those States, which carry on the Commerce of Oeconomy. They are forbidden to import any Commodities, except what are Raw, and not manufactured; and even those must be the Growth of their own Country; and they are prohibited from trading thither in any Vessels, but what are constructed in that Country, from whence they come.

326. The State, which imposes these Laws, ought to be in a Condition to carry on the Trade itself with Ease, and without the Assistance of others; otherwise it would, at least, do equal Injury to itself. It is better to be concerned in Trade with such a Nation, as exacts little, and which the Necessity of Trade renders in some Measure attached to us: With such a People, who from their extensive Views, or Traffic, know where to dispose of their superfluous Merchandise; who are rich, and can take off a great Stock of Commodities; and who will pay for them in ready Money; who, if we may express ourselves in this Manner, are necessitated even by Interest to be honest; who are pacific from Principle; who aim at Profit, but not at Conquests. It is better, I say, to be concerned with such a Nation, than with others, who are always our Rivals, and will grant us none of these Advantages.

327. It would be still more injurious to a State; if, in order to sell its Commodities, it should confine itself to one upon this weak Pretense, that it will take off all our Goods at a fixed Price certain.

328. The true Maxim is, not to exclude any People from trading with us, without very important Reasons.

329. In many Countries Banks are established with good Success; which, by their Credit, have created such new Signs of Valuation, as have increased the Circulation. But, in order to establish the Credit of such Institutions under a monarchical Government, these Banks ought to be annexed to such charitable Foundations, as are esteemed sacred, and independent of the Government; and which have a Grant by Letters Patent, with which no Person can, or ought to interfere; such, for Instance, as Hospitals, Orphan-Houses, &c. that all Persons might be persuaded, and firmly trust, that the Sovereign will never violate the sacred character of those Places; nor incur the Guilt of Sacrilege, by seizing their Money.

330. One of the best Writers upon Laws gives us his Sentiments in the following Words. People, incited by what they see practiced in some Dominions, imagine, that it would be expedient to have Laws, which should encourage the Nobility to engage in Commerce. This would be the Means of ruining the Nobility, without the least Advantage to Commerce. The Practice indeed is extremely wise in those Countries, where Merchants, though not ennobled, are yet capable of attaining the Rank of Nobility; they have the Hopes of obtaining that Rank, without laboring under the Inconveniencies, which actually attend it. They have not a more certain Method of rising above their present Profession, than by carrying it on with the utmost Assiduity, or meeting with such Success, as is generally accompanied with an affluent Fortune. It is repugnant to the true Spirit of Trade, that the Nobility should engage in it under a monarchical Government. It would be fatal to the Cities, as the Emperors Honorius and Theodosius affirm; and would destroy the Facility of buying and selling between the Merchants and the Plebeians. It is equally contrary to the Spirit of monarchical Government, for the Nobility to engage in Trade. The Custom allowed to the Nobility, in some Countries, of engaging in Trade, is one of the Means, which contributed most to weaken the Monarchical Government.

331. There are People, however, of a different Opinion; who judge, that such Noblemen may be permitted to Trade, as are not actually in the Service of the Government; but still with this Restriction, that they conform themselves, in every Thing, to the Laws of Commerce.

332. Theophilus seeing a Ship freighted with Merchandise for his Consort Theodora, ordered it to be bumt. I am an Emperor, said he to her, and thou makest me a Master of a Vessel; which Way shall poor People be able to earn a Livelihood, if we turn Traders? He might have added, "Who will be able to restrain us, if we turn Monopolists? Who can compel us to make good our Contracts? The Courtiers, following our Example, will do the same; they will be more rapacious, and more unjust than we are. The People confide in our Justice, but not in our Opulence: The great Number of Taxes, which reduce them to Misery, are convincing Proofs of our own Necessities."

333. When the Portuguese and Spaniards lorded it over the East-Indies, Trade there produced such lucrative Branches, that their Sovereigns thought proper to seize upon them themselves. This destructive Measure ruined their Settlements in that Part of the World. The Viceroy of Goa granted exclusive Privileges to different Persons. No one can ever confide in such Sort of People; the Trade was ruined by the continual Change of the Parties, to whom it was entrusted. No one gave himself the least Concern about such a Kind of Trade; nor cared in how ruinous a Condition he left it to his Successor. The Profit centered in few hands, and was not sufficiently diffused.

334. Solon made a Law at Athens, that the Person of a Debtor should not be arrested for Debts on civil Contracts. This Law is very useful for the common domestic Affairs of the Citizens; but We ought not to follow it in Affairs relative to Commerce. For as Merchants are frequently obliged to entrust large Sums of Money for very short Times, to give them, and to receive them back; the Debtor ought in justice to be always punctual to the Time appointed for the Payment; which implies a Power of arresting his Person. In Disputes arising from common civil Contracts among the Citizens, the Law ought not to allow the Arrest of the Person; because it sets a greater Value upon the Liberty of one Citizen. than the private Interests of another. But in commercial Contracts, the Law ought to set a greater Value upon the Interest of the whole Community, than upon the Liberty of a private Citizen. Yet this does by no Means exclude such Restrictions and Limitations, as Humanity and good Policy require.

335. That Law at Geneva is highly praise-worthy, which includes all the Children of those who lived or died insolvent from the Magistracy, and even from a Seat in the great Council; unless they discharged the Debts contracted by their Parents. The happy Effect resulting from this Law produces a general Confidence for the Merchants, for the Magistrates, and for the City itself. The particular Credit of every Individual has, in that Place, the same Force as the united Credit of the Public.

336. The Rhodians extended this Law much father. Amongst them a Son could not possibly avoid the Payment of his Father's Debts, even though he should relinquish all Right to his paternal Inheritance. This Law of Rhodes was calculated for a State founded in, and supported by Commerce. The very Nature, therefore, of their Constitution seems to have required this Exception to be annexed to the Law, for the Encouragement of Commerce, That all Debts contracted by the Father, after the Son had commenced Trader upon his own Account, should not affect, or deprive him of what Property he had acquired after that Period of Time. A Merchant ought always to know thoroughly the Extent of his Contracts, and to conduct himself so, as never to exceed his capital Stock.

337. Xenophon is of Opinion, "that a Premium should be allowed to such of the Prefects of Trade, as terminated soonest all Processes relating to Commerce." He seems to have foreseen the Necessity of the Consular Jurisdiction.

338. Affairs relating to Trade will hardly admit of the Delay occasioned by judicial Formalities. They are Actions produced every Day in Commerce, from which others of the same Nature must every Day invariably follow. They ought therefore to be every Day decided. The Case is quite different with respect to temporal Affairs, which chiefly influence future Events, and which happen but rarely. We generally marry but once; we do not make our Wills, or bequeath Gifts every Day, and we can be of Age but once.

339. Plato affirms, that in a City which carries on no Commerce by Sea, there is no Occasion for Half the Number of civil Laws; which is extremely right. A maritime Trade introduces People of various Nations into the same Place; a great Number of Contracts, different Kinds of Commodities, and different Methods of Gain: Consequently, in a trading City, there are fewer Judges, and more Laws.

340. The Law, which confiscates the Effects of any Stranger to the Sovereign's Use in whose Territories he happens to die, and deprives the right Heir of his Inheritance; and the Law, which appropriates to the Sovereign, or his Subjects, the Cargo of a Ship wrecked upon their Coasts, are alike ill-judged and inhuman.

341. The Grand Charter, or Magna Charta of England, forbids the Seizure of the Lands or Revenues of a Debtor, if his moveable or personal Effects are sufficient to discharge his Debts, and he is willing to resign them to his Creditors; In such a Case, all his Effects are valued as ready Money. This Charter does not prevent the Lands and Revenues of an Englishman from being valued as ready Money, in the same Manner as his personal Effects. The Intention of this Prohibition was to protect the Debtor from the Hardships he might be exposed to from the Severity of his Creditors. Justice becomes Oppression, when strained so far beyond the Bounds of Equity, in Seizures for Debts, as to deprive the Debtor of that Security, which Man has a Right to demand; and if one Species of Wealth is alone sufficient for the Payment of his Debts, there is no absolute Necessity for seizing another. And as Lands and Revenues are seized for the Payment of Debts, where no other Effects remain sufficient to satisfy the Creditors, it should seem, that they ought not to be excluded from the Number of those Signs, which are valued as ready Money.

342. The Proof of Gold, of Silver, and of Copper, in Coin, likewise the Impression and the intrinsic Value of the Coin, ought always to be regulated by one fixed Standard, which should never be varied upon any Occasion; for every Alteration in the Coin injures the Credit of the State. Nothing ought to be so much exempted from Alteration, as that which is the commonMeasure of every Thing. Commerce, in its very Nature, is extremely uncertain, and it is highly injurious to add a new Degree of Uncertainty to that, which arises from the very Nature of the Thing itself.

343. There are Laws in some Countries, which prohibit the Subjects to sell their Lands, lest they should transport the Purchase-money into foreign Countries. These Laws might be of use at that Time, when the Wealth of any Country was so circumstanced, that it could not be transported to another without the utmost Difficulty. But since, by the Invention of Letters of Exchange, Wealth is, in some Measure, no longer the sole Property of any particular Country, and can with so much Ease be transferred from one Country to another; that ought to be termed a bad Law, which does not permit the Owner to dispose of his Lands as he thinks proper, and the Situation of his Affairs requires, just as freely, as he can dispose of his Money. This Law is bad too for this Reason, that it gives the Preference, in point of Advantage, to the personal over the landed Estate; because it prevents Foreigners from settling in that Country; and, finally, because it may be easily eluded.

344. It ever happens, that whoever forbids that which Nature itself dictates, or unavoidable Necessity requires, such a one will do nothing more, than only reduce those who practice it to be dishonest.

345. In commercial Countries, where great Numbers depend entirely upon their Art, the State is frequently obliged to provide for the Necessities of the Ancient, the Infirm, and the Orphans. A well-regulated State draws a Fund for their Subsistence from the very Arts themselves; it gives Work to some in proportion to their Abilities; and it teaches others to work, which is itself an Employment.

346. An Alms bestowed on a Beggar in the Street, can never acquit a State of the Obligation it lies under, of affording all its Citizens a certain Support during Life; such as wholesome Food, proper Clothing, and a Way of Life not prejudicial to Health in general.

Para pesquisa procure-se o seguinte endereço na Internet: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/history/courses/europe1/source/nakaz.htm

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CONVENÇÃO PARA A PROTEÇÃO DOS DIREITOS DO HOMEM E DAS LIBERDADES FUNDAMENTAIS

(Modificada nos termos das disposições do Protocolo nº 11)

(também conhecida como Convenção Européia dos Direitos Humanos)

A Convenção Européia assim está redigida, em tradução encontrada na Internet em português:

Adotada em Roma, em 4 de Novembro de 1950.

Entrada em vigor na ordem internacional: 3 de Setembro de 1953.

O texto da Convenção foi modificado nos termos das disposições do Protocolo n.º 3 (STE N.º 45), entrado em vigor em 21 de Setembro de 1970, do Protocolo n.º 5 (STE N.º 55), entrado em vigor em 20 de Dezembro de 1971 e do Protocolo n.º 8 (STE N.º 118), entrado em vigor em 1 de Janeiro de 1990, incluindo ainda o texto do Protocolo n.º 2 (STE N.º 44) que, nos termos do seu artigo 5.º, parágrafo 3.º, fazia parte integrante da Convenção desde a sua entrada em vigor em 21 de Setembro de 1970. Todas as disposições modificadas ou acrescentadas por estes Protocolos são substituídas pelo Protocolo n.º 11 (STE N.º 155), a partir da data da entrada em vigor deste, em 1 de Novembro de 1998. A partir desta data, o Protocolo n.º 9 (STE N.º 140), entrado em vigor em 1 de Outubro de 1994, ficou revogado.

Os Governos signatários, Membros do Conselho da Europa,

Considerando a Declaração Universal dos Direitos do Homem proclamada pela Assembléia Geral das Nações Unidas em 10 de Dezembro de 1948,

Considerando que esta Declaração se destina a assegurar o reconhecimento e aplicação universais e efetivos dos direitos nela enunciados,

Considerando que a finalidade do Conselho da Europa é realizar uma união mais estreita entre os seus Membros e que um dos meios de alcançar esta finalidade é a proteção e o desenvolvimento dos direitos do homem e das liberdades fundamentais,

Reafirmando o seu profundo apego a estas liberdades fundamentais, que constituem as verdadeiras bases da justiça e da paz no mundo e cuja preservação repousa essencialmente, por um lado, num regime político verdadeiramente democrático e, por outro, numa concepção comum e no comum respeito dos direitos do homem,

Decididos, enquanto Governos de Estados Europeus animados no mesmo espírito, possuindo um patrimônio comum de ideais e tradições políticas, de respeito pela liberdade e pelo primado do direito, a tomar as primeiras providências apropriadas para assegurar a garantia coletiva de certo número de direitos enunciados na Declaração Universal,

Convencionaram o seguinte:

Artigo 1.º (Obrigação de respeitar os direitos do homem)

As Altas Partes Contratantes reconhecem a qualquer pessoa dependente da sua jurisdição os direitos e liberdades definidos no título I da presente Convenção.

TÍTULO I

(Direitos e liberdades)

Artigo 2.º (Direito à vida)

1. O direito de qualquer pessoa à vida é protegido pela lei. Ninguém poderá ser intencionalmente privado da vida, salvo em execução de uma sentença capital pronunciada por um tribunal, no caso de o crime ser punido com esta pena pela lei.

2. Não haverá violação do presente artigo quando a morte resulte de recurso à força, tornado absolutamente necessário:

a) Para assegurar a defesa de qualquer pessoa contra uma violência ilegal;

b) Para efetuar uma detenção legal ou para impedir a evasão de uma pessoa detida legalmente;

c) Para reprimir, em conformidade com a lei, uma revolta ou uma insurreição.

Artigo 3.º (Proibição da tortura)

Ninguém pode ser submetido a torturas, nem a penas ou tratamentos desumanos ou degradantes.

Artigo 4.º (Proibição da escravatura e do trabalho forçado)

1. Ninguém pode ser mantido em escravidão ou servidão.

2. Ninguém pode ser constrangido a realizar um trabalho forçado ou obrigatório.

3. Não será considerado "trabalho forçado ou obrigatório" no sentido do presente artigo:

a) Qualquer trabalho exigido normalmente a uma pessoa submetida a detenção nas condições previstas pelo artigo 5.º da presente Convenção, ou enquanto estiver em liberdade condicional;

b) Qualquer serviço de caráter militar ou, no caso de objetores de consciência, nos países em que a objeção de consciência for reconhecida como legítima, qualquer outro serviço que substitua o serviço militar obrigatório;

c) Qualquer serviço exigido no caso de crise ou de calamidade que ameacem a vida ou o bem-estar da comunidade;

d) Qualquer trabalho ou serviço que fizer parte das obrigações cívicas normais.

Artigo 5.º (Direito à liberdade e à segurança)

1. Toda pessoa tem direito à liberdade e segurança. Ninguém pode ser privado da sua liberdade, salvo nos casos seguintes e de acordo com o procedimento legal:

a) Se for preso em conseqüência de condenação por tribunal competente;

b) Se for preso ou detido legalmente, por desobediência a uma decisão tomada, em conformidade com a lei, por um tribunal, ou para garantir o cumprimento de uma obrigação prescrita pela lei;

c) Se for preso e detido a fim de comparecer perante a autoridade judicial competente, quando houver suspeita razoável de ter cometido uma infração, ou quando houver motivos razoáveis para crer que é necessário impedi-lo de cometer uma infração ou de se pôr em fuga depois de a ter cometido;

d) Se se tratar da detenção legal de um menor, feita com o propósito de o educar sob vigilância, ou da sua detenção legal com o fim de o fazer comparecer perante a autoridade competente;

e) Se se tratar da detenção legal de uma pessoa susceptível de propagar uma doença contagiosa, de um alienado mental, de um alcoólico, de um toxicômano ou de um vagabundo;

f) Se se tratar de prisão ou detenção legal de uma pessoa para lhe impedir a entrada ilegal no território ou contra a qual está em curso um processo de expulsão ou de extradição.

2. Qualquer pessoa presa deve ser informada, no mais breve prazo e em língua que compreenda, das razões da sua prisão e de qualquer acusação formulada contra ela.

3. Qualquer pessoa presa ou detida nas condições previstas no parágrafo 1, alínea c), do presente artigo deve ser apresentada imediatamente a um juiz ou outro magistrado habilitado pela lei para exercer funções judiciais e tem direito a ser julgada num prazo razoável, ou posta em liberdade durante o processo. A colocação em liberdade pode estar condicionada a uma garantia que assegure a comparência do interessado em juízo.

4. Qualquer pessoa privada da sua liberdade por prisão ou detenção tem direito a recorrer a um tribunal, a fim de que este se pronuncie, em curto prazo de tempo, sobre a legalidade da sua detenção e ordene a sua libertação, se a detenção for ilegal.

5. Qualquer pessoa vítima de prisão ou detenção em condições contrárias às disposições deste artigo tem direito a indenização.

Artigo 6.º (Direito a um processo eqüitativo)

1. Qualquer pessoa tem direito a que a sua causa seja examinada, eqüitativa e publicamente, num prazo razoável por um tribunal independente e imparcial, estabelecido pela lei, o qual decidirá, quer sobre a determinação dos seus direitos e obrigações de caráter civil, quer sobre o fundamento de qualquer acusação em matéria penal dirigida contra ela. O julgamento deve ser público, mas o acesso à sala de audiências pode ser proibido à imprensa ou ao público durante a totalidade ou parte do processo, quando a bem da moralidade, da ordem pública ou da segurança nacional numa sociedade democrática, quando os interesses de menores ou a proteção da vida privada das partes no processo o exigirem, ou, na medida julgada estritamente necessária pelo tribunal, quando, em circunstâncias especiais, a publicidade pudesse ser prejudicial para os interesses da justiça.

2. Qualquer pessoa acusada de uma infração presume-se inocente enquanto a sua culpabilidade não tiver sido legalmente provada.

3. O acusado tem, como mínimo, os seguintes direitos:

a) Ser informado no mais curto prazo, em língua que entenda e de forma minuciosa, da natureza e da causa da acusação contra ele formulada;

b) Dispor do tempo e dos meios necessários para a preparação da sua defesa;

c) Defender-se a si próprio ou ter a assistência de um defensor da sua escolha e, se não tiver meios para remunerar um defensor, poder ser assistido gratuitamente por um defensor oficioso, quando os interesses da justiça o exigirem;

d) Interrogar ou fazer interrogar as testemunhas de acusação e obter a convocação e o interrogatório das testemunhas de defesa nas mesmas condições que as testemunhas de acusação;

e) Fazer-se assistir gratuitamente por intérprete, se não compreender ou não falar a língua usada no processo.

Artigo 7.º (Princípio da legalidade)

1. Ninguém pode ser condenado por uma ação ou uma omissão que, no momento em que foi cometida, não constituía infração, segundo o direito nacional ou internacional. Igualmente não pode ser imposta uma pena mais grave do que a aplicável no momento em que a infração foi cometida.

2. O presente artigo não invalidará a sentença ou a pena de uma pessoa culpada de uma ação ou de uma omissão que, no momento em que foi cometida, constituía crime segundo os princípios gerais de direito reconhecidos pelas nações civilizadas.

Artigo 8.º (Direito ao respeito pela vida privada e familiar)

1. Qualquer pessoa tem direito ao respeito da sua vida privada e familiar, do seu domicílio e da sua correspondência.

2. Não pode haver ingerência da autoridade pública no exercício deste direito senão quando esta ingerência estiver prevista na lei e constituir uma providência que, numa sociedade democrática, seja necessária para a segurança nacional, para a segurança pública, para o bem-estar econômico do país, a defesa da ordem e a prevenção das infrações penais, a proteção da saúde ou da moral, ou a proteção dos direitos e das liberdades de terceiros.

Artigo 9.º (Liberdade de pensamento, de consciência e de religião)

1. Qualquer pessoa tem direito à liberdade de pensamento, de consciência e de religião; este direito implica a liberdade de mudar de religião ou de crença, assim como a liberdade de manifestar a sua religião ou a sua crença, individual ou coletivamente, em público e em privado, por meio do culto, do ensino, de práticas e da celebração de ritos.

2. A liberdade de manifestar a sua religião ou convicções, individual ou coletivamente, não pode ser objeto de outras restrições senão as que, previstas na lei, constituírem disposições necessárias, numa sociedade democrática, à segurança pública, à protecção da ordem, da saúde e moral públicas, ou à protecção dos direitos e liberdades de outrem.

Artigo 10.º (Liberdade de expressão)

1. Qualquer pessoa tem direito à liberdade de expressão. Este direito compreende a liberdade de opinião e a liberdade de receber ou de transmitir informações ou idéias sem que possa haver ingerência de quaisquer autoridades públicas e sem considerações de fronteiras. O presente artigo não impede que os Estados submetam as empresas de radiodifusão, de cinematografia ou de televisão a um regime de autorização prévia.

2. O exercício desta liberdades, porquanto implica deveres e responsabilidades, pode ser submetido a certas formalidades, condições, restrições ou sanções, previstas pela lei, que constituam providências necessárias, numa sociedade democrática, para a segurança nacional, a integridade territorial ou a segurança pública, a defesa da ordem e a prevenção do crime, a proteção da saúde ou da moral, a proteção da honra ou dos direitos de outrem, para impedir a divulgação de informações confidenciais, ou para garantir a autoridade e a imparcialidade do poder judicial.

Artigo 11.º (Liberdade de reunião e de associação)

1. Qualquer pessoa tem direito à liberdade de reunião pacífica e à liberdade de associação, incluindo o direito de, com outrem, fundar e filiar-se em sindicatos para a defesa dos seus interesses.

2. O exercício deste direito só pode ser objeto de restrições que, sendo previstas na lei, constituírem disposições necessárias, numa sociedade democrática, para a segurança nacional, a segurança pública, a defesa da ordem e a prevenção do crime, a proteção da saúde ou da moral, ou a proteção dos direitos e das liberdades de terceiros. O presente artigo não proíbe que sejam impostas restrições legítimas ao exercício destes direitos aos membros das forças armadas, da polícia ou da administração do Estado.

Artigo 12.º (Direito ao casamento)

A partir da idade núbil, o homem e a mulher têm o direito de se casar e de constituir família, segundo as leis nacionais que regem o exercício deste direito.

Artigo 13.º (Direito a um recurso efectivo)

Qualquer pessoa cujos direitos e liberdades reconhecidos na presente Convenção tiverem sido violados tem direito a recurso perante uma instância nacional, mesmo quando a violação tiver sido cometida por pessoas que atuem no exercício das suas funções oficiais.

Artigo 14.º (Proibição de discriminação)

O gozo dos direitos e liberdades reconhecidos na presente Convenção deve ser assegurado sem quaisquer distinções, tais como as fundadas no sexo, raça, cor, língua, religião, opiniões políticas ou outras, a origem nacional ou social, pertença a uma minoria nacional, a riqueza, o nascimento ou qualquer outra situação.

Artigo 15.º (Derrogação em caso de estado de necessidade)

1. Em caso de guerra ou de outro perigo público que ameace a vida da nação, qualquer Alta Parte Contratante pode tomar providências que derroguem as obrigações previstas na presente Convenção, na estrita medida em que o exigir a situação, e em que tais providências não estejam em contradição com as outras obrigações decorrentes do direito internacional.

2. A disposição precedente não autoriza nenhuma derrogação ao artigo 2.º, salvo quanto ao caso de morte resultante de atos lícitos de guerra, nem aos artigos 3.º, 4.º (parágrafo 1) e 7.º

3. Qualquer Alta Parte Contratante que exercer este direito de derrogação manterá completamente informado o Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa das providências tomadas e dos motivos que as provocaram. Deverá igualmente informar o Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa da data em que essas disposições tiverem deixado de estar em vigor e da data em que as da Convenção voltarem a ter plena aplicação.

Artigo 16.º (Restrições à atividade política dos estrangeiros)

Nenhuma das disposições dos artigos 10.º, 11.º e 14.º pode ser considerada como proibição às Altas Partes Contratantes de imporem restrições à atividade política dos estrangeiros.

Artigo 17.º (Proibição do abuso de direito)

Nenhuma das disposições da presente Convenção se pode interpretar no sentido de implicar para um Estado, grupo ou indivíduo qualquer direito de se dedicar à atividade ou praticar atos em ordem à destruição dos direitos ou liberdades reconhecidos na presente Convenção ou a maiores limitações de tais direitos e liberdades do que as previstas na Convenção.

Artigo 18.º (Limitação da aplicação de restrições aos direitos)

As restrições feitas nos termos da presente Convenção aos referidos direitos e liberdades só podem ser aplicadas para os fins que foram previstas.

TÍTULO II

(Tribunal Europeu dos Direitos do Homem)

Artigo 19.º (Criação do Tribunal)

A fim de assegurar o respeito dos compromissos que resultam, para as Altas Partes Contratantes, da presente Convenção e dos seus protocolos, é criado um Tribunal Europeu dos Direitos do Homem, a seguir designado "o Tribunal", o qual funcionará a título permanente.

Artigo 20.º (Número de juízes)

O Tribunal compõe-se de um número de juízes igual ao número de Altas Partes Contratantes.

Artigo 21.º (Condições para o exercício de funções)

1. Os juízes deverão gozar da mais alta reputação moral e reunir as condições requeridas para o exercício de altas funções judiciais ou ser jurisconsultos de reconhecida competência.

2. Os juízes exercem as suas funções a título individual.

3. Durante o respectivo mandato, os juízes não poderão exercer qualquer atividade incompatível com as exigências de independência, imparcialidade ou disponibilidade exigidas por uma atividade exercida a tempo inteiro. Qualquer questão relativa à aplicação do disposto no presente número é decidida pelo Tribunal.

Artigo 22.º (Eleição dos juízes)

1. Os juízes são eleitos pela Assembléia Parlamentar relativamente a cada Alta Parte Contratante, por maioria dos votos expressos, recaindo numa lista de três candidatos apresentados pela Alta Parte Contratante.

2. Observa-se o mesmo processo para completar o Tribunal no caso de adesão de novas Altas Partes Contratantes e para prover os lugares que vagarem.

Artigo 23.º (Duração do mandato)

1. Os juízes são eleitos por um período de seis anos. São reelegíveis. Contudo, as funções de metade dos juízes designados na primeira eleição cessarão ao fim de três anos.

2. Os juízes cujas funções devam cessar decorrido o período inicial de três anos serão designados por sorteio, efetuado pelo Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa, imediatamente após a sua eleição.

3. Com o fim de assegurar, na medida do possível, a renovação dos mandatos de metade dos juízes de três em três anos, a Assembléia Parlamentar pode decidir, antes de proceder a qualquer eleição ulterior, que o mandato de um ou vários juízes a eleger terá uma duração diversa de seis anos, sem que esta duração possa, no entanto, exceder nove anos ou ser inferior a três.

4. No caso de se terem conferido mandatos variados e de a Assembléia Parlamentar ter aplicado o disposto no número precedente, a distribuição dos mandatos será feita por sorteio pelo Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa imediatamente após a eleição.

5. O juiz eleito para substituir outro cujo mandato não tenha expirado completará o mandato do seu predecessor.

6. O mandato dos juízes cessará logo que estes atinjam a idade de 70 anos.

7. Os juízes permanecerão em funções até serem substituídos. Depois da sua substituição continuarão a ocupar-se dos assuntos que já lhes tinham sido cometidos.

Artigo 24.º (Destituição)

Nenhum juiz poderá ser afastado das suas funções, salvo se os restantes juízes decidirem, por maioria de dois terços, que o juiz em causa deixou de corresponder aos requisitos exigidos.

Artigo 25.º (Secretaria e oficiais de justiça)

O Tribunal dispõe de uma secretaria, cujas tarefas e organização serão definidas no regulamento do Tribunal. O Tribunal será assistido por oficiais de justiça.

Artigo 26.º (Assembléia plenária do Tribunal)

O Tribunal, reunido em assembléia plenária:

a) Elegerá o seu presidente e um ou dois vice-presidentes por um período de três anos. Todos eles são reelegíveis;

b) Criará seções, que funcionarão por período determinado;

c) Elegerá os presidentes das seções do Tribunal, os quais são reelegíveis;

d) Adotará o regulamento do Tribunal;

e) Elegerá o secretário e um ou vários secretários-adjuntos.

Artigo 27.º (Comitês, seções e tribunal pleno)

1. Para o exame dos assuntos que lhe sejam submetidos, o Tribunal funcionará em comitês compostos por três juízes, em seções compostas por sete juízes e em tribunal pleno composto por dezessete juízes. As seções do Tribunal constituem os comitês por período determinado.

2. O juiz eleito por um Estado parte no diferendo será membro de direito da seção e do tribunal pleno; em caso de ausência deste juiz ou se ele não estiver em condições de intervir, tal Estado parte designará a pessoa que intervirá na qualidade de juiz.

3. Integram igualmente o tribunal pleno o presidente do Tribunal, os vice-presidentes, os presidentes das seções e outros juízes designados em conformidade com o regulamento do Tribunal. Se o assunto tiver sido deferido ao Tribunal pleno nos termos do artigo 43.º, nenhum juiz da seção que haja proferido a decisão poderá naquele intervir, salvo no que respeita ao presidente da seção e ao juiz que decidiu em nome do Estado que seja parte interessada.

Artigo 28.º (Declarações de inadmissibilidade por parte dos comitês)

Qualquer comitê pode, por voto unânime, declarar a inadmissibilidade ou mandar arquivar qualquer petição individual formulada nos termos do artigo 34.º, se essa decisão puder ser tomada sem posterior apreciação. Esta decisão é definitiva.

Artigo 29.º (Decisões das seções quanto à admissibilidade e ao fundo)

1. Se nenhuma decisão tiver sido tomada nos termos do artigo 28.º, uma das seções pronunciar-se-á quanto à admissibilidade e ao fundo das petições individuais formuladas nos termos do artigo 34.º

2. Uma das seções pronunciar-se-á quanto à admissibilidade e ao fundo das petições estaduais formuladas nos termos do artigo 33.º

3. A decisão quanto à admissibilidade é tomada em separado, salvo deliberação em contrário do Tribunal relativamente a casos excepcionais.

Artigo 30.º (Devolução da decisão a favor do tribunal pleno)

Se um assunto pendente numa seção levantar uma questão grave quanto à interpretação da Convenção ou dos seus protocolos, ou se a solução de um litígio puder conduzir a uma contradição com uma sentença já proferida pelo Tribunal, a seção pode, antes de proferir a sua sentença, devolver a decisão do litígio ao tribunal pleno, salvo se qualquer das partes do mesmo a tal se opuser.

Artigo 31.º (Atribuições do tribunal pleno)

O tribunal pleno:

a) Pronunciar-se-á sobre as petições formuladas nos termos do artigo 33.º ou do artigo 34.º, se a seção tiver cessado de conhecer de um assunto nos termos do artigo 30.º ou se o assunto lhe tiver sido cometido nos termos do artigo 43.º;

b) Apreciará os pedidos de parecer formulados nos termos do artigo 47.º

Artigo 32.º (Competência do Tribunal)

1. A competência do Tribunal abrange todas as questões relativas à interpretação e à aplicação da Convenção e dos respectivos protocolos que lhe sejam submetidas nas condições previstas pelos artigos 33.º, 34.º e 47.º

Artigo 33.º (Assuntos interestaduais)

Qualquer Alta Parte Contratante pode submeter ao Tribunal qualquer violação das disposições da Convenção e dos seus protocolos que creia poder ser imputada a outra Alta Parte Contratante.

Artigo 34.º (Petições individuais)

O Tribunal pode receber petições de qualquer pessoa singular, organização não governamental ou grupo de particulares que se considere vítima de violação por qualquer Alta Parte Contratante dos direitos reconhecidos na Convenção ou nos seus protocolos. As Altas Partes Contratantes comprometem-se a não criar qualquer entrave ao exercício efetivo desse direito.

Artigo 35.º (Condições de admissibilidade)

1. O Tribunal só pode ser solicitado a conhecer de um assunto depois de esgotadas todas as vias de recurso internas, em conformidade com os princípios de direito internacional geralmente reconhecidos e num prazo de seis meses a contar da data da decisão interna definitiva.

2. O Tribunal não conhecerá de qualquer petição individual formulada em aplicação do disposto no artigo 34.º se tal petição:

a) For anônima;

b) For, no essencial, idêntica a uma petição anteriormente examinada pelo Tribunal ou já submetida a outra instância internacional de inquérito ou de decisão e não contiver fatos novos.

3. O Tribunal declarará a inadmissibilidade de qualquer petição individual formulada nos termos do artigo 34.º sempre que considerar que tal petição é incompatível com o disposto na Convenção ou nos seus protocolos, manifestamente mal fundada ou tem caráter abusivo.

4. O Tribunal rejeitará qualquer petição que considere inadmissível nos termos do presente artigo. O Tribunal poderá decidir nestes termos em qualquer momento do processo.

Artigo 36.º (Intervenção de terceiros)

1. Em qualquer assunto pendente numa seção ou no tribunal pleno, a Alta Parte Contratante da qual o autor da petição seja nacional terá o direito de formular observações por escrito ou de participar nas audiências.

2. No interesse da boa administração da justiça, o presidente do Tribunal pode convidar qualquer Alta Parte Contratante que não seja parte no processo ou qualquer outra pessoa interessada que não o autor da petição a apresentar observações escritas ou a participar nas audiências.

Artigo 37.º (Arquivamento)

1. O Tribunal pode decidir, em qualquer momento do processo, arquivar uma petição se as circunstâncias permitirem concluir que:

a) O requerente não pretende mais manter tal petição;

b) O litígio foi resolvido;

c) Por qualquer outro motivo constatado pelo Tribunal, não se justifica prosseguir a apreciação da petição.

Contudo, o Tribunal dará seguimento à apreciação da petição se o respeito pelos direitos do homem garantidos na Convenção assim o exigir.

2. O Tribunal poderá decidir-se pelo desarquivamento de uma petição se considerar que as circunstâncias assim o justificam.

Artigo 38.º (Apreciação contraditória do assunto e processo de resolução amigável)

1. Se declarar admissível uma petição, o Tribunal:

a) Procederá a uma apreciação contraditória da petição em conjunto com os representantes das partes e, se for caso disso, realizará um inquérito para cuja eficaz condução os Estados interessados fornecerão todas as facilidades necessárias;

b) Colocar-se-á à disposição dos interessados com o objetivo de se alcançar uma resolução amigável do assunto, inspirada no respeito pelos direitos do homem como tais reconhecidos pela Convenção e pelos seus protocolos.

2. O processo descrito no n.º 1, alínea b), do presente artigo é confidencial.

Artigo 39.º (Conclusão de uma resolução amigável)

Em caso de resolução amigável, o Tribunal arquivará o assunto, proferindo, para o efeito, uma decisão que conterá uma breve exposição dos fatos e da solução adotada.

Artigo 40.º (Audiência pública e acesso aos documentos)

1. A audiência é pública, salvo se o Tribunal decidir em contrário por força de circunstâncias excepcionais.

2. Os documentos depositados na secretaria ficarão acessíveis ao público, salvo decisão em contrário do presidente do Tribunal.

Artigo 41.º (Reparação razoável)

Se o Tribunal declarar que houve violação da Convenção ou dos seus protocolos e se o direito interno da Alta Parte Contratante não permitir senão imperfeitamente obviar às conseqüências de tal violação, o Tribunal atribuirá à parte lesada uma reparação razoável, se necessário.

Artigo 42.º (Decisões das seções)

As decisões tomadas pelas seções tornam-se definitivas em conformidade com o disposto no n.º 2 do artigo 44.º

Artigo 43.º (Devolução ao tribunal pleno)

1. Num prazo de três meses a contar da data da sentença proferida por uma seção, qualquer parte no assunto poderá, em casos excepcionais, solicitar a devolução do assunto ao tribunal pleno.

2. Um coletivo composto por cinco juízes do tribunal pleno aceitará a petição, se o assunto levantar uma questão grave quanto à interpretação ou à aplicação da Convenção ou dos seus protocolos ou ainda se levantar uma questão grave de caráter geral.

3. Se o coletivo aceitar a petição, o tribunal pleno pronunciar-se-á sobre o assunto por meio de sentença.

Artigo 44.º (Sentenças definitivas)

1. A sentença do tribunal pleno é definitiva.

2. A sentença de uma seção tornar-se-á definitiva:

a) Se as partes declararem que não solicitarão a devolução do assunto ao tribunal pleno;

b) Três meses após a data da sentença, se a devolução do assunto ao tribunal pleno não for solicitada;

c) Se o coletivo do tribunal pleno rejeitar a petição de devolução formulada nos termos do artigo 43.º

3. A sentença definitiva será publicada.

Artigo 45.º (Fundamentação das sentenças e das decisões)

1. As sentenças, bem como as decisões que declarem a admissibilidade ou a inadmissibilidade das petições, serão fundamentadas.

2. Se a sentença não expressar, no todo ou em parte, a opinião unânime dos juízes, qualquer juiz terá o direito de lhe juntar uma exposição da sua opinião divergente.

Artigo 46.º (Força vinculativa e execução das sentenças)

1. As Altas Partes Contratantes obrigam-se a respeitar as sentenças definitivas do Tribunal nos litígios em que forem partes.

2. A sentença definitiva do Tribunal será transmitida ao Comitê de Ministros, o qual velará pela sua execução.

Artigo 47.º (Pareceres)

1. A pedido do Comitê de Ministros, o Tribunal pode emitir pareceres sobre questões jurídicas relativas à interpretação da Convenção e dos seus protocolos.

2. Tais pareceres não podem incidir sobre questões relativas ao conteúdo ou à extensão dos direitos e liberdades definidos no título I da Convenção e nos protocolos, nem sobre outras questões que, em virtude do recurso previsto pela Convenção, possam ser submetidas ao Tribunal ou ao Comitê de Ministros.

3. A decisão do Comitê de Ministros de solicitar um parecer ao Tribunal será tomada por voto majoritário dos seus membros titulares.

Artigo 48 (Competência consultiva do Tribunal)

O Tribunal decidirá se o pedido de parecer apresentado pelo Comitê de Ministros cabe na sua competência consultiva, tal como a define o artigo 47.º

Artigo 49.º (Fundamentação dos pareceres)

1. O parecer do Tribunal será fundamentado.

2. Se o parecer não expressar, no seu todo ou em parte, a opinião unânime dos juízes, qualquer juiz tem o direito de o fazer acompanhar de uma exposição com a sua opinião divergente.

3. O parecer do Tribunal será comunicado ao Comitê de Ministros.

Artigo 50.º (Despesas de funcionamento do Tribunal)

As despesas de funcionamento do Tribunal serão suportadas pelo Conselho da Europa.

Artigo 51.º (Privilégios e imunidades dos juízes)

Os juízes gozam, enquanto no exercício das suas funções, dos privilégios e imunidades previstos no artigo 40.º do Estatuto do Conselho da Europa e nos acordos concluídos em virtude desse artigo.

TÍTULO III

(Disposições diversas)

Artigo 52.º (Inquéritos do Secretário-Geral)

Qualquer Alta Parte Contratante deverá fornecer, a requerimento do Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa, os esclarecimentos pertinentes sobre a forma como o seu direito interno assegura a aplicação efetiva de quaisquer disposições desta Convenção.

Artigo 53.º (Salvaguarda dos direitos do homem reconhecidos por outra via)

Nenhuma das disposições da presente Convenção será interpretada no sentido de limitar ou prejudicar os direitos do homem e as liberdades fundamentais que tiverem sido reconhecidos de acordo com as leis de qualquer Alta Parte Contratante ou de qualquer outra Convenção em que aquela seja parte.

Artigo 54.º (Poderes do Comitê de Ministros)

Nenhuma das disposições da presente Convenção afeta os poderes conferidos ao Comitê de Ministros pelo Estatuto do Conselho da Europa.

Artigo 55.º (Renúncia a outras formas de resolução de litígios)

As Altas Partes Contratantes renunciam reciprocamente, salvo acordo especial, a aproveitar-se dos tratados, convênios ou declarações que entre si existirem, com o fim de resolver, por via contenciosa, uma divergência de interpretação ou aplicação da presente Convenção por processo de solução diferente dos previstos na presente Convenção.

Artigo 56.º (Aplicação territorial)

1. Qualquer Estado pode, no momento da ratificação ou em qualquer outro momento ulterior, declarar, em notificação dirigida ao Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa, que a presente Convenção se aplicará, sob reserva do n.º 4 do presente artigo, a todos os territórios ou a quaisquer dos territórios cujas relações internacionais assegura.

2. A Convenção será aplicada ao território ou territórios designados na notificação, a partir do trigésimo dia seguinte à data em que o Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa a tiver recebido.

3. Nos territórios em causa, as disposições da presente Convenção serão aplicáveis tendo em conta as necessidades locais.

4. Qualquer Estado que tiver feito uma declaração de conformidade com o primeiro parágrafo deste artigo pode, em qualquer momento ulterior, declarar que aceita, a respeito de um ou vários territórios em questão, a competência do Tribunal para aceitar petições de pessoas singulares, de organizações não governamentais ou de grupos de particulares, conforme previsto pelo artigo 34.º da Convenção.

Artigo 57.º (Reservas)

1. Qualquer Estado pode, no momento da assinatura desta Convenção ou do depósito do seu instrumento de ratificação, formular uma reserva a propósito de qualquer disposição da Convenção, na medida em que uma lei então em vigor no seu território estiver em discordância com aquela disposição. Este artigo não autoriza reservas de caráter geral.

2. Toda a reserva feita em conformidade com o presente artigo será acompanhada de uma breve descrição da lei em causa.

Artigo 58.º (Denúncia)

1. Uma Alta Parte Contratante só pode denunciar a presente Convenção ao fim do prazo de cinco anos a contar da data da entrada em vigor da Convenção para a dita Parte, e mediante um pré-aviso de seis meses, feito em notificação dirigida ao Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa, o qual informará as outras Partes Contratantes.

2. Esta denúncia não pode ter por efeito desvincular a Alta Parte Contratante em causa das obrigações contidas na presente Convenção no que se refere a qualquer fato que, podendo constituir violação daquelas obrigações, tivesse sido praticado pela dita Parte anteriormente à data em que a denúncia produz efeito.

3. Sob a mesma reserva, deixará de ser parte na presente Convenção qualquer Alta Parte Contratante que deixar de ser membro do Conselho da Europa.

4. A Convenção poderá ser denunciada, nos termos dos parágrafos precedentes, em relação a qualquer território a que tiver sido declarada aplicável nos termos do artigo 56.º

Artigo 59.º (Assinatura e ratificação)

1. A presente Convenção está aberta à assinatura dos membros do Conselho da Europa. Será ratificada. As ratificações serão depositadas junto do Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa.

2. A presente Convenção entrará em vigor depois do depósito de dez instrumentos de ratificação.

3. Para todo o signatário que a ratifique ulteriormente, a Convenção entrará em vigor no momento em que se realizar o depósito do instrumento de ratificação.

4. O Secretário-Geral do Conselho da Europa notificará todos os membros do Conselho da Europa da entrada em vigor da Convenção, dos nomes das Altas Partes Contratantes que a tiverem ratificado, assim como do depósito de todo o instrumento de ratificação que ulteriormente venha a ser feito.

Feito em Roma, aos 4 de Novembro de 1950, em francês e em inglês, os dois textos fazendo igualmente fé, num só exemplar, que será depositado nos arquivos do Conselho da Europa. O Secretário-Geral enviará cópias conformes a todos os signatários.

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JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND THE SUPREM COURT OF RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The existing judicial system of the Russian Federation was formed and is being developed as a result of a judicial reform carried out in Russia from the beginning of the 90s with the purpose to create and maintain the judicial power in the state mechanism as an independent branch of power, free from political and ideological bias, independent in its activities from the executive and legislative branches of power.

Independent, competent law court is an important component of a democratic state based on a rule of law.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 became the main legal basis for the introduction of the judicial reform. For the first time the Constitution contained a Chapter "Judicial Power" according to which the state power in the Russian Federation should be exercised on the basis of its division into legislative, executive and judicial powers, and all these branches of power should be independent.

The structure of the judicial system of the Russian Federation and the sphere of activities of its various parts are determined by the Constitution and federal constitutional laws (paragraph 3 Article 118 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).

The judicial system of the Russian Federation consists of:

- The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and constitutional courts of the republics and other subjects of the Russian Federation.

The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation considers cases relating to the compliance of the federal laws, normative acts of the President of the Russian Federation, the Council of the Federation, the State Duma, the Government of the Russian Federation, constitutions of republics, charters and other normative acts of the subjects of Russian Federation with the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 125 of the Constitution);

- four-tiered system of courts of general jurisdiction. Three-tiered system of the military courts is an integral part of it. The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body of this branch ;

- three-level system of arbitration courts with the Higher Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation as a supreme judicial body competent to settle economic disputes and other cases considered by arbitration courts, exercise judicial supervision over their activities according to the federal law-envisaged procedural forms. The system of the arbitration courts comprises: arbitration courts of the subjects of the Russian Federation; courts of arbitration districts (10) and the Higher Arbitration Court.

The system of general jurisdiction courts has the following structure:

The first tier comprises all general jurisdiction rayon (district) courts -city, intermunicipal and equal to them - acting on the territory of Russia.

Middle tier of general jurisdiction courts includes the supreme courts of the republics, kray ( regional), oblast (provincial) courts, city courts of Moscow and St.-Petersburg, courts of autonomous provinces and autonomous districts.

The main tier of military courts are the military courts of armies, fleets, garrisons and military formations.

The middle tier of military courts consists of military courts of the branches of the Armed Forces, military districts, districts of antiaircraft defence, navy and separate armies.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body for all courts of general jurisdiction, both civil and military.

Rayon courts form the basis of the system of general jurisdiction courts of the Russian Federation.

The law attributes to the jurisdiction of rayon courts all civil cases, overwhelming majority of criminal cases and cases relating to administrative offences.

Rayon courts act as a higher judicial instance for the Justices of the Peace operating on the territory of the appropriate judicial district.

Justices of the Peace are judges of the subjects of the Russian Federation and form an integral part of the system of courts of general jurisdiction.

The reestablishment of the institute of Justices of the Peace in Russia in 2000 is an important step in the course of development of the judicial and legal reform and provides for more operative and accessible judicial protection for the citizens of the country.

The law entrusts the Justices of the Peace with functions and duties equal for all the judges of Russia: to exercise justice observing precisely and strictly the requirements of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized rules, norms and principles of the international law and international agreements concluded or joined by the Russian Federation.

The Justices of the Peace are included into the structure of general jurisdiction courts and participate in the work of its bodies.

Courts of general jurisdiction: of kray, oblast, city, of autonomous oblast and autonomous districts act as higher instance courts for rayon courts.

The courts of this tier of the judicial system are empowered to carry out all the powers of a judicial instance, namely to examine cases as a first instance court in the order of cassation, by way of supervision and upon newly discovered evidence. They work in the following composition: presidium of the court, judicial panel for civil cases and judicial panel for criminal cases.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body for civil, criminal, administrative and other cases under the jurisdiction of courts of general jurisdiction, carries out judicial supervision over their activities according to the federal law-envisaged procedural forms and provides clarifications on the issues of court proceedings (Article 126 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation). It heads the judicial system of general jurisdiction, representing a supreme tier of this system.

The Supreme Court of Russian Federation has the right of the legislative initiative. The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation acts as a court of first instance for cases of special importance or special public interest when it accepts them for consideration according to the legislation. The law determines a category of cases which are included in the sphere of activities of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation as a court of first instance.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is a cassation instance in relation to the federal courts of general jurisdiction of republics or oblast.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation supervises legality, validity and substantiality of sentences and other decisions of courts of lower level.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is composed of its Chairman, first deputy and deputies of the Chairman, the justices of the Court and People’s assessors.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation has the following structure:

The Plenum of the Supreme Court.

The Plenum of the Supreme Court on the basis of studies and generalisation of the judicial practice and judicial statistics, provides its guidance to courts on the issues of proper application of the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The Plenum hears reports on the activities of the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, reports by the judicial chambers chairmen. It has the right to present the legislative body with presentations on issues subject to be resolved in the legislative order.

The Presidium of the Supreme Court.

Apart from consideration of cases by way of supervision and upon newly discovered evidences, the Presidium of the Supreme Court considers and hears issues relating to the organisation of activities of judicial chambers, examines materials of the studies and generalisation of judicial practice, analyses judicial statistics, assists lower courts in correct application of the legislation.

Judicial chambers.

There are three chambers in the structure of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation: Judicial Chamber on Civil Cases; Judicial Chamber on Criminal Cases; and Military Chamber. Within the limits of their powers they consider cases as courts of first instances; in the order of cassation; by way of supervision and on newly discovered evidence, study and generalise judicial practice, analyse judicial statistics.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is assisted in exercising its powers by several offices, departments and other structural units.

At present the Supreme Court has initiated establishment of the all-Russian system of administrative justice. The appropriate draft of a federal law has already been presented to the State Duma.

Administrative courts.

Competence of administrative courts will include appeals and complaints by citizens against unlawful actions of the officials of different levels, normative acts issued by ministries, departments, President’s decrees, Government decisions, acts promulgated by the Chambers of Parliament, laws of the subjects of the Russian Federation. Besides, administrative courts will consider cases on violations of electoral and some tax laws and disputes between bodies of state power.

The basic aspect of these new courts, according to the main concept, is to make administrative courts independent of the state bodies. That is why it has been decided that their territorial structure will be different from that of courts of general jurisdiction when the courts traditionally are established according to the existing administrative - territorial division of the country.

Endereço na Internet: http://www.supcourt.ru/EN/frames.htm

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JUDGES' STATUS LAW OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

1992, 26 June, N 3132-1

As amended 1993, 14 April; 1993, 24 December; 1995, 21 June

Application of the Law extended 1993, 14 April

Section 1. Judges are the Bearers of Judicial Power

1. Judicial power in the Russian Federation belongs only to the courts in the persons of judges and people representatives drawn in the administration of justice in the cases stated by the Law.

2. Judicial power is self-dependent and acts independently from legislative and executive powers.

3. Judges according to this Law are the persons empowered to administer justice in the constitutional order and performing their duties on the professional basis.

4. Judges are independent and submit only to the Constitution of the Russian Federation and to the Law. They are not accountable to anybody in their activities which deals with the administration of justice.

5. The facts of the contempt of court are punishable according to the Law.

6. The demands and directions of the judges made while performing their duties are binding for all state bodies, public unions, officials and another physical and juridical persons. Any information, documents and their copies nessesary for administration of justice must be given according to the demands of the judges free of charge. Non-observance of the demands and directions of the judges is punishable according to the Law.

Section 2. Unity of the Judges' Status

1. All the judges of the Russian Federation have the same status. Some particular features of the legal position of some categories of judges, including the judges of military courts, are determined by federal laws and in special cases described in federal laws - by the laws of the subjects of the Russian Federation.

2. Judges are given qualificational classes according to their present position, experience in the position of a judge and another sircumstances determined by the Law. Conferment of a qualiflcational class does not mean that the status of such judge among the other judges in the Russian Federation must be changed.

Special features of the legal position of the Justices of the Constitutional Court are determined'by Federal Constitutional Law.

Section 3. Requirements to the Judges

1. A judge must observe carefully the Constitution of the Russian Federation and other laws.

2. A judge while performing his or her duties and in his or her private relations must try to avoid of everything that can belittle the authority of the judicial power, dignity of a judge or create any doubt about his or her objectivity, justice and impartiality.

3. A judge can not be a deputee, belong to any political party or movement, conduct some private business and combine the work as a judge with another paid work except scientific, teaching, literary or another creative activities. Retired judge has a right to work in the sphere of justice.

Section 4. Requirements to the Applicants for the Judge's Office

1. A citizen of the Russian Federation not less than 25 years old, having received high legal education and with an experience in the legal profession not less than 5 years, not commited any defaming acts can become a judge after passing qualifying examination and gaining a recommendation of the Qualifying Collegium of Judges.

But only a citizen of the Russian Federation not less than 30 years old can become a judge of the higher court, and a citizen of the Russian Federation not less than 35 years old with the experience in the legal profession not less than ten years can become a Justice of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation or of the Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation.

2. Additional requirements to the applicants for the offices of judges in the courts of the Russian Federation may be stated in Federal Law.

Section 5. Selection of the Applicants for the Judge's Office

1. Selection of the applicants for the judge's office is perfomed on the competitive basis.

2. Any citizen of the Russian Federation having received high legal education and being 25 years old has a right to be allowed to take the qualifying examination for the judge's office.

3. Qualifying examination for the judge's office must be conducted by an examinational body'attached to the local body of the Ministry of Justice, personal staff of which is adopted by the Qualifying Collegium of Judges.

4. Only a person which is not a judge may take the qualifying examination. The results of the qualifying examination are valid during three years from the date of passing it and during the whole period of work as a judge.

5. Every citizen of the Russian Federation who meets the requirements to the applicants for the office of a judge in an appropriate court has a right to apply to the qualifying collegium of judges for the recommendation for that place.

6. Qualifying collegium of judges in it's terms of reference considers the request of a person pretending to the appropriate office of a judge, and taking into account the results of the qualifying examination makes a decision about giving such person a recommendation or refusing of giving it. Repeated appeal to the qualifying collegium of judges is allowed not less than a year after the date of the decision.

7. Qualifying collegium of judges gives the chairman of an appropriate court a conclusion about every applicant recommended. If the chairman does not agree with the conclusion it must be returned to the same qualifying collegium of judges for repeated consideration. If second conclusion is positive again the chairman of the appropriate court will have to introduce the candidature for futher consideration in the order stated by the Law.

Section 6. Order of empowering judges

1. Justices of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and of the Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation are appointed to the office by the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation according to the application of the President of the Russian Federation, which must be introduced taking into account the opinions of the Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Russan Federation and the Chairman of the Highest Court of Arbitration respectively.

2. Judges of federal circuit courts of arbitration are appointed to the office by the President of the Russian Federation according to the application of the Chairman of the Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation.

3. Judges of other federal courts of general jurisdiction and courts of arbitration are appointed to the office by the President of the Russian Federation according to the applications of the Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Chairman of the Highest Court of Arbitration respectively taking into account the opinion of the legislative (representative) body of the appropriate subject of the Russian Federation.

4. Judges of military courts are appointed to the office by the President of the Russian Federation according to the application of the Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.

5. The President of the Russian Federation in a month term since he receives necessary materials appoints judges of federal courts and introduces the applicants for the offices of Justices in the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Highest Court of Arbitration for appointment to the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation or refuses to introduce them and informs the chairman of the appropriate court about that.

6. Appointments to the offices of judges must be performed only in the presence of positive conclusion of the qualifying collegium of judges.

7. In the case of refusal of appointment of an applicant to the office of a judge of a court of general jurisdiction or a court of arbitration appropriate qualifying collegium of judges has a right having repeated application of a candidate to consider the grounds of refusal and to give positive conclusion about the appointment of this applicant once again.

Section 7 - excluded 1995, 21, June Section 7-1. Acting Judge

1. A retired judge, if he gives his concent, may be drown in the administration of justice as an acting judge for a period not more than one year in the presence of a vacant judge's office or in the case of temporary considerable increase of amount of work in the court or in the absence of a judge or in the case of postponing his authorities. There can not be any acting judges in the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation.

2. Drawning of a retired judge in the administration of justice as an acting judge is performed by the chairman of appropriate higher court in the presence of positive conclusion of a qualifying collegium ofjudges.

Section 8. Judge's Oath

1. A judge appointed to the office for the first time in solemn situation takes the following oath:

"I solemnly swear to perform my duties honestly and consctientiously, to administer justice submitting only to the Law, to be fair and justice as my duty and my conscience permit me"

2. Justices of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and of the Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation take their oaths on the meetings of Justices of these Courts. Judges of the other courts take their oaths on the congresses (conferences) or on the meetings ofjudges.

3. A judge takes the oath standing before the State Flag of the Russian Federation and in suitable cases - before the state flag of the republic combining the Russian Federation.

Section 9. Guarantees of the Independence of a Judge

1. Independence of a judge is guaranteed by:

- the procedure of administration of justice stated by the Law;

- the prohibition of anybodie's interference into the activities dealing with the administration of justice under the threat of punishment;

- stated order of postponing and ceasing powers of a judge;

- the right of a judge for being retired;

- personal immunity of a judge;

- the system of the organs of judicial community;

- granting the judge material and social ensurance according to his high status by the state.

2. A judge, members of his family and his property are under special guard of the state. Bodies of the Ministry of Inferior are obliged to undertake nessesary measures for ensuring the security of a judge, his family, safety of his property if they receive from a judge an appropriate application.

A judge has a right to keep and carry an official fire-arm, which must be given him or her by the body of the Ministry of Inferior in the order stated by the Weapon Law of the Russian Federation.

3. Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, ministries of justice of the republics combining the Russian Federation and other bodies of the Ministry of Justice carry out nessesary measures in order to provide perfect conditions for judicial activities, it's personnel, organizational and resources ensurance. The Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation undertakes nessesary measures for providing perfect conditions for activities of the courts of arbitration. Activities of the military courts are ensured in the order stated by the Military Courts Law.

4. The guarantees of the judges' independence including measures of his legal security, material and social ensurance provided by this Law are extended to all the judges in the Russian Federation and can not be abolished or diminished by any other act of the Russian Federation or of the subject of the Russian Federation.

Section 10. Inadmissibility of Interference Into the Activities of a Judge

1. Any interference into the judges' activities dealing with the administration of justice is punishable by the Law.

2. A judge is not obliged to give anybody any explanations about the cases considering or have been already considered and to give the materials of the case anybody to get aquainted with them, except the cases stated by the Law.

Section 11. Term of Office of a Judge

1. Terms of office of the judges in the Russian Federation are not limited except ceirtain cases described in paragraphs 2 and 3 of this section.

2. Judges of Peace are elected on a five year term by the population of the circuit of their jurisdiction.

3. Judges of district (city) people's courts, judges of military courts of garrisons (armies, flotillas, formations) at first are appointed to the office for a three year term after which they may be appointed without limitation of the term of office.

Section 12. Irremovability of a Judge

A judge is irremovable. He is not liable to any transference to another post or to another court without his concent, and his authorities can not be postponed or ceased in the other way than on the grounds and in the order stated by this Law.

7 Section 13. Postponing of the Judicial Authorities

1. The authorities of a judge may be postponed by the decision of the qualifying collegium of judges in the presence of one of the grounds shown below:

1) recognising a judge as obscurity absent by the decision of a court which is already in it's legal force;

2) agreement of a qualifying collegium of judges about charging a judge with criminal responsibility or imprisonment of a judge;

3) participance of a judge in the election campaign as a nominee to the body of the legislative (representative) power of the Russian Federation or to the body of the legislative (representative) power of the subject of the Russian Federation;

4) election of a judge to the body of the legislative (representative) power of the Russian Federation or to the body of the legislative (representative) power of the subject of the Russian Federation.

2. A judge whose authorities are postponed according to the subparagraphs 2 and 3 paragraph 1 of this section or who have been refused of postponing his authorities can appeal to the Highest Qualifying Collegium of Judges in 10 days after receiving the copy of the decision. The decision of the Highest Qualifying Collegium of Judges can be appealed to the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation in the same term.

3. Postponing of the authorities of a judge, except the cases of his or her imprisonment as a preventive punishment, does not put an end to the payments of his or her salary to him or her, or in the case of recognising him or her as obscurity absent - to his or her family, or does not diminish his or her salary. Postponing of the authorities of a judge, except the cases of his or her imprisonment as a preventive punishment, does not diminish other kinds of his or her material and social ensurances and cease the guarantees of his or her personal immunity, stated by this Law.

4. Decision about the resumption of the authorities of a judge must be made by the qualifying collegium of judges that has postponed his or her authorities.

Section 14. Ceasing of the Judicial Authorities

1. Authorities of a judge may be ceased according to the grounds shown below:

1) written application of a judge for his or her retirement;

2) impossibility for him or her to perform judicial duties for a long time because of his state of health or other valid reasons. The qualifying collegium of judges can cease the authorities of a judge according to these reasons but it has no right to do so in the case of his or her entrance upon his duties;

3) written application of a judge for ceasing his or her authorities because of passing to another job or other reasons;

4) expiring of the term of office of a judge if it was limited;

5) discharge a judge of a military court from military service on reaching age limit for military service;

6) ceasing of the citizenship of the Russian Federation;

7) performing some activities incompatible with the judicial office;

8) the sentence charging the judge with criminal responsibility or judicial decision about application of medical measures ofcompultion to him or her which came into it's legal force;

9) commitment of an action disgracing conscience and dignity of a judge or bellitling authority of the judicial powder;

10) judicial decision about limitation of the capability of a judge or recognising him as uncapable which came into it's legal force;

11) death of the judge or a decision of the court about declaring him or her dead which came into it's legal force;

12) refuse of a judge to be transferred to another court because of the reorganisation or abolishment of the court.

2. The authorities of a judge are ceased by the decision of an appropriate qualifying collegium of judges which can be appealed by the judge to the Highest Qualifying Collegium of Judges in 10 days since he or she received it's copy. Decision of the Highest Qualifying Collegium of Judges can be appealed to the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation in the same term.

3. In the case of repeal of the decision of the qualifying collegium of judges about ceasing the authorities of a judge or repeal of the sentence charging him or her with criminal responsibility or judicial decision named in subparagraph 8 paragraph 1 of this section such judge must be restored in his office with payment of his salary.

Section 15. Retirement of a Judge

1. Retirement in the sence of this Law means honorary resignation or removal of a judge from his office. A retired person preserves the title of judge, guarantees of personal immunity and membership of the judicial community.

2. Every judge has a right to be retired irrespective of his age. A judge is recognized as a retired one if his authorities were ceased on the grounds pointed in subparagraphs 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 12 paragraph 1 of section 14 of this Law.

The time of holding the office of a judge in the regions of Extreme North or other equal territories must be included into the length of service of a judge is counted half as much again.

3. Resigned or removed judge must receive a discharge pay in the size of his present month salary for every whole year of holding the judge's office but not less than six month salaries in the office he left. The judge already been resigned or removed must receive a discharge pay only for the time of holding his office after retirement.

4. A judge after his retirement preserves the right to use public transport free of charge and other rights stated for this category of judges by the laws of the Russian Federation currently in force.

5. A retired judge receives a pension on common grounds. A retired judge with the length of service in the office of a judge not less than 20 years may choose to receive a pension or tax free monthly life salary in the size of 80% of the salary of a judge holding equal office at the present time. A retired judge with the length of service in the office of a judge less than 20 years but reached the age of 55 (for women -50) receives his or her monthly life salary in proportion to the amount of whole years he or she holded the office of a judge.

A retired judge having the length of service in the office of a judge more than 20 years must receive his monthly life salary increased for one per cent for every year over 20 but not more than 85% of the salary of a judge holding equal office at the present time.

Retired judges which became invalid because of war traumas have a right to receive monthly life salary together with the disability pension.

6. The judge is considered as a retired one till he or she observes the demands of paragraph 3 of section 3 of this Law, preserves Russian citizenship and does not commit any acts defaming him and in this way belittling the authority of judicial power.

7. The qualifying collegium of judges situated in the former place of work or the constant place of living of a retired judge having established that he is not meeting the requirements to the judge, stated in this Law, any more, must cease the retirement of a judge. A judge whose retirement was ceased have a right to appeale this decision in the order stated by paragraph 2 of section 14 of this Law.

8. The retirement of a judge must be already ceased when this judge is elected to the office once again.

9. A judge whose retirement was ceased has a right to receive a pension in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Section 16. Immunity of a Judge

1. Personality of a judge is protected by the immunity. This immunity extends on his habitation and office, transport facilities and means of communication that he uses, his mail, property and documents belonging to him.

2. A judge can not be charged with disciplinary or administrative responsibility. A judge can not be charged with any responsibility for his or her opinion or decision made while administering justice if there is no sentence in legal force that establishes his guilt in abuse of his powders.

3. A judge must be charged with criminal responsibility only by the Procurator General of the Russian Federation or a person acting as him in the presence of the agreement of appropriate qualifying collegium of judges.

4. A judge can not be charged with criminal responsibility, imprisoned or brought to the court without an agreement of the qualifying collegium of judges. The imprisonment of a judge is allowed only according to the sanction of the Procurator General of the Russian Federation or the person acting as him or according to the decision of the court.

5. A judge can not be detained in any case, or compulsory been brought to any state body because of the investigation of the administrative case. A judge which have been suspected in commiting a crime and detained or detained and brought to the local body of the Ministry of Inferior, another state body because of the investigation of the administrative case must be immediatly released after identification of his personality.

6. Penetration into the habitation or office of a judge, into his personal or official transport that he uses, conducting an examination, seach or seizure there, wiretapping, personal examination or seach of a judge, and examination, seach and seizure of his mail, property belonging to him, must be performed with observance of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws and only in connection with the investigation of criminal case against this judge.

7. Criminal case against the judge according to his demand declared before the beginning of the trial must be tried at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.

Section 17. Bodies of Judicial Community

1. In order to express the interests of judges as the bearers of judicial power they form bodies of judicial community.

2. Bodies of judicial community are:

All-Russian Congress of Judges and in periods between congresses Council of Judges of the Russian Federation elected by All-Russian Congress of Judges;

meetings of the Justices of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation;

congresses (conferences) of the judges of the republics composing the Russian Federation, regions, provinces, cities Moscow and St. Petersburg, autonomous province and autonomous circuits, military circuits, groops of troops and navy, courts of arbitration and in periods between congresses councils of judges elected by them.

3. Bodies of Judicial Community:

1) discuss questions of judicial practice and improvement of the legislation;

2) conduct public expertise of the drafts of laws and other acts dealing with the judicial activities and status of judges;

3) consider actual problems of functioning of the courts, their personnel, organisational and resources provision and legal and social position of judges;

4) represent interests of judges in the state bodies and public unions;

5) elect appropriate qualifying collegiums of judges (for courts of general jurisdiction, military courts and courts of arbitration separatly).

4. Bodies of judicial community adopt decisions on the questions discussed and also appeals to the state bodies, public unions and public officials. Such appeals must be considered in a month term.

5. Bodies of judicial community perform their work observing the principles of independence of judges and inadmissibility of interference into the judicial activities.

6. The order of formation and activity of the bodies of judicial community are determined by the All-Russian Congress of Judges.

Section 18. Qualifying Collegiums of Judges

1. For considering questions of:

selection of the applicants for the office of judge;

postponing and ceasing of the authorities of a judge;

ceasing of the retirement of a judge;

providing personal immunity of a judge;

conducting attestation of a judge and giving him or her qualification class, - the Highest Qualifying Collegium of Judges and qualifying collegiums of judges of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, judges of the republics combining the Russian Federation, regions, provinces, cities Moscow and St. Petersburg, autonomous province and autonomous circuits, judges of military courts, groops of troops and navy, and also of the Highest Court of Arbitration and courts of arbitration are formed.

2. Order of formation and activity and also authorities of the Highest and other collegiums of judges are determined by the regulation adopted by the State Duma of the Russian Federation.

Section 19. Material Assurance of Judges

1. Salary of a judge (monetary payment of a judge of a military court) consists of official rate of pay and for judges of military courts -also of rate of pay for military ranks, additional payments for qualification class, working experience, and additional payment of 50% of salary for special conditions of work, that can not be diminished. A judge also receives other payments stated by the laws and other legal acts. The size of additional payments for qualification class or working experience is stated by Federal Law of the Russian Federation. The size of official rate of pay of a judge is stated according to his office in per cents to the rate of pay of the Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Chairman of the Highest Court of Arbitration, stated by Federal Law of the Russian Federation, and can not be less than fifty per cent of it. Official rate of pay of a judge can not be less than eighty per cent of the rate of pay of the chairman of appropriate court.

A judge having reached the age of 60 (women - 55), with the experience in legal profession not less than 25 years, not less than 10 years from which holding the office of a judge, has a right to receive monthly life salary in full size being retired. While counting the size of monthly life salary it is necessary to include into the length of service not only the length of service holding the office of a judge, but also the length of service as a legal specialist in state organisations where high legal education was necessary and term of service as an advocate before appointment to the office of a judge.

Judges holding their offices in the regions of Extreme North and equal territories not less than 15 and 20 years respectively and being retired must receive monthly life salary taking into consideration regional coefficient to the salary irrespective of their place of living and the time of applying for such salary.

Judges having academic degree of a candidate of law science or academic status of senior lecturer receive additional payment in a rate of five per cent of their official rate of pay, and judges having academic degree of a doctor of law science or academic status of a professor - 10 per cent of their official rate of pay. Judges having honorary title "Honoured Lawyer of the Russian Federation" receive additional payment in a rate of 10 per cent of his official rate of pay. Retired judges and judges having ranks also have a right to receive such additional payments. So, size of their monthly life salary taking into consideration additional payments named before and additional payments named in the second indention of paragraph 5 of section 15 of this Law can not exceed 85 per cent of the salary of a judge holding equal office now.

2. Judges are granted annual paid holidays with the duration of 30 working days.

Judges working in the regions of Extreme North are granted annual paid holidays with the duration of 51 working days, and in some equal regions and in regions with hard or unfavourable climate conditions where the coefficients to the salary are existing - 45 working days.

A judge is granted additional annual paid holiday according to his length of service in legal profession:

from 5 to 10 years - 5 working days;

from 10 to 15 years - 10 working days;

over 15 years - 15 working days.

Time of travelling to the place of rest and back is not included into the term of holiday. Cost of travel to the place of rest and back must be paid.

Order of determination of the length of service for giving additional annual paid holidays is stated by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the Highest Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation, and the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation.

3. Local administration is obliged not later than in six months since empowering a judge and (or) in the case of necessity of improving his or her conditions of living to give him or her out of term comfortable appartment in the shape of separate flat or house considering the right of every judge for additional living space not less than 20 square meters or in the shape of separate room. Such appartment must be given to the judge at the expence of local budget with further compensation from federal budget in a term not less than six months or must be bought by the court at the expence of means of federal budget given to the court for such purposes, and a judge must be considered to be in the need of improving of his or her living conditions if his or her living space does not meet social norms stated by the Dwelling Code of the Russian Federation and this Law or if he or she is living in communal flat. Appartment must be given into the possession of the judge free of charge.

With the consent of a judge instead of appartment he or she may receive interest-bearing loan from federal budget for purchase or building an habitation which must be paid off under the condition of holding the office of a judge for 10 years.

The questions of installation of home phones and giving places in children pre-school institutions must be decided out of term not more than in three months with payments from local budget.

4. A retired judge having the length of service holding the office of a judge not less than 20 years or became an invalid during his work and wanting to remove to the new area for constant place of living must be provided out of term by local administration with comfortable appartment in the shape of separate flat or house at the expence of federal budget. Also such judge must be provided with an oppotunity to join the membership in housing co-operative or with assistance in individual house-building.

A retired judge preserves a right to use provided additional living space named in paragraph 3 of this Section.

5. A judge and members of his or her family have a right to use medical service including provision with medicines at the expence of federal budget. Also they have a right to enjoy sanatorium-spa treatment at the expence of federal budget for the judge, his wife or her husband and their children under age. A judge preserves such right also after retirement or pension off. Medical treatment of a retired judge or a judge pensioned off and members of his or her family must be performed at the expence of federal budget at the same medical institutions where they were registered.

6. In the case of ceasing of the authorities of a judge according to subparagraph 11 paragraph 1 of section 14 of this Law his or her family receives lump sum allowance in the rate of his or her month salary in the last office for every full year of holding the office of a judge but not less than his or her annual salary.

In the case of abolishment or reorganisation of the court a judge with his consent may be transfered to another court. A judge preserve his or her salary during the time of official registration of his or her transference. If the judge refuses to be transfered to another court he or she has a right to retire on the common grounds. In such case he also receives a compensation in the rate of his annual salary received at the last office.

7. A judge has a right to use according to his or her official identity card all kinds of transport of urban, country and local communication (except taxi). Also a judge enjoys reservation of places in hotel or getting them and travel documents out of turn.

8. Judges and other court staff having ranks are supplied with official uniform free of charge according to the norms adopted by the Government of the Russian Federation.

Section 20. Measures of Social Security for Judges and Members of Their Families

1. Life, health and property of judges must be obligatory insured by the State at the expence of federal budget. Life and health of a judge must be insured for the sum of his salary for fifteen years.

2. Bodies of State insurance must pay insurance sums in the following cases:

murder (death) of a judge during his work or after his dismissal from office if it ensued because of physical injuries or other health injury - to his or her successors in the rate of his or her salary for fifteen years;

causing mutilations or other health injury to the judge that excepts his or her further ability to perform his or her professional activities - in the rate of his or her salary for three years;

causing physical injuries or other health injury to the judge that did not entail steady disability that will except his or her further ability to perform his or her professional activities - in the rate of his or her annual salary.

3. In the case of causing mutilations or other health injury to the judge that excepts his or her further ability to perform his or her professional activities he or she must receive monthly compensation in the rate of the salary of a judge holding equal office.

At the same time disability pension or other types of pension the judge received before or after getting mutilations can not be included into the compensation. Also the salary such judge receives after getting mutilations and payments of obligatory State insuranse can not be taken into consideration for payments of compensation.

4. In the case of murder (death) of a judge disabled members of his or her family who were his or her dependants must receive monthly compensation in the rate of salary of a judge holding equal office with the deduction of the part of the judge himself without taking into account payments of obligatory State insurance, dependant pension and another pensions, payments, grants and other income.

Such order of payment should be applied to the cases of murder (death) of a retired judge members of whose family who were his or her defendants must receive monthly compensation according to the rate of life salary of that judge.

5. Injury inflicted by destruction or damage of the property that belongs to the judge or members of his or her family must be compensated to the judge or members of his or her family in it's whole amount.

6. Payments compensating the injury named in paragraph 3, 4 and 5 of this Section must be taken at the expence of federal budget.

7. Rules stated in paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this Section should not be applied if it was established in the order stated by the Law that inflicting injury to the judge or members of his family was not connected with his official activity.Section 21. Symbols of Judicial Power1. The State Flag of the Russian Federation must be placed on the court building and in the court-room there must be the State Flag of the Russian Federation and the picture of the State Emblem of the Russion Federation.2. While administering justice judges must wear judge's gown.3. Judges, and also retired judges, must get their official identity cards from the body or public official appointed them to the office.President of the Russian FederationB. YeltsinEndereço na Internet: http://www.supcourt.ru/EN/frames.htm

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JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND THE SUPREME COURT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The existing judicial system of the Russian Federation was formed and is being developed as a result of a judicial reform carried out in Russia from the beginning of the 90s with the purpose to create and maintain the judicial power in the state mechanism as an independent branch of power, free from political and ideological bias, independent in its activities from the executive and legislative branches of power.

Independent, competent law court is an important component of a democratic state based on a rule of law.The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 became the main legal basis for the introduction of the judicial reform.

For the first time the Constitution contained a Chapter "Judicial Power" according to which the state power in the Russian Federation should be exercised on the basis of its division into legislative, executive and judicial powers, and all these branches of power should be independent.

The structure of the judicial system of the Russian Federation and the sphere of activities of its various parts are determined by the Constitution and federal constitutional laws (paragraph 3 Article 118 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).

The judicial system of the Russian Federation consists of:

- The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and constitutional courts of the republics and other subjects of the Russian Federation.The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation considers cases relating to the compliance of the federal laws, normative acts of the President of the Russian Federation, the Council of the Federation, the State Duma, the Government of the Russian Federation, constitutions of republics, charters and other normative acts of the subjects of Russian Federation with the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 125 of the Constitution);

- four-tiered system of courts of general jurisdiction. Three-tiered system of the military courts is an integral part of it. The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body of this branch ;

- three-level system of arbitration courts with the Higher Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation as a supreme judicial body competent to settle economic disputes and other cases considered by arbitration courts, exercise judicial supervision over their activities according to the federal law-envisaged procedural forms.

The system of the arbitration courts comprises: arbitration courts of the subjects of the Russian Federation; courts of arbitration districts (10) and the Higher Arbitration Court.The system of general jurisdiction courts has the following structure:The first tier comprises all general jurisdiction rayon (district) courts -city, intermunicipal and equal to them - acting on the territory of Russia.

Middle tier of general jurisdiction courts includes the supreme courts of the republics, kray ( regional), oblast (provincial) courts, city courts of Moscow and St.-Petersburg, courts of autonomous provinces and autonomous districts.

The main tier of military courts are the military courts of armies, fleets, garrisons and military formations.

The middle tier of military courts consists of military courts of the branches of the Armed Forces, military districts, districts of antiaircraft defence, navy and separate armies.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body for all courts of general jurisdiction, both civil and military.

Rayon courts form the basis of the system of general jurisdiction courts of the Russian Federation.

The law attributes to the jurisdiction of rayon courts all civil cases, overwhelming majority of criminal cases and cases relating to administrative offences.

Rayon courts act as a higher judicial instance for the Justices of the Peace operating on the territory of the appropriate judicial district.

Justices of the Peace are judges of the subjects of the Russian Federation and form an integral part of the system of courts of general jurisdiction.

The reestablishment of the institute of Justices of the Peace in Russia in 2000 is an important step in the course of development of the judicial and legal reform and provides for more operative and accessible judicial protection for the citizens of the country.

The law entrusts the Justices of the Peace with functions and duties equal for all the judges of Russia: to exercise justice observing precisely and strictly the requirements of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized rules, norms and principles of the international law and international agreements concluded or joined by the Russian Federation.

The Justices of the Peace are included into the structure of general jurisdiction courts and participate in the work of its bodies.

Courts of general jurisdiction: of kray, oblast, city, of autonomous oblast and autonomous districts act as higher instance courts for rayon courts.

The courts of this tier of the judicial system are empowered to carry out all the powers of a judicial instance, namely to examine cases as a first instance court in the order of cassation, by way of supervision and upon newly discovered evidence.

They work in the following composition: presidium of the court, judicial panel for civil cases and judicial panel for criminal cases.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body for civil, criminal, administrative and other cases under the jurisdiction of courts of general jurisdiction, carries out judicial supervision over their activities according to the federal law-envisaged procedural forms and provides clarifications on the issues of court proceedings (Article 126 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation). It heads the judicial system of general jurisdiction, representing a supreme tier of this system.

The Supreme Court of Russian Federation has the right of the legislative initiative. The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation acts as a court of first instance for cases of special importance or special public interest when it accepts them for consideration according to the legislation.

The law determines a category of cases which are included in the sphere of activities of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation as a court of first instance.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is a cassation instance in relation to the federal courts of general jurisdiction of republics or oblast.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation supervises legality, validity and substantiality of sentences and other decisions of courts of lower level.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is composed of its Chairman, first deputy and deputies of the Chairman, the justices of the Court and People’s assessors.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation has the following structure:

The Plenum of the Supreme Court.

The Plenum of the Supreme Court on the basis of studies and generalisation of the judicial practice and judicial statistics, provides its guidance to courts on the issues of proper application of the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The Plenum hears reports on the activities of the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, reports by the judicial chambers chairmen.

It has the right to present the legislative body with presentations on issues subject to be resolved in the legislative order.

The Presidium of the Supreme Court.

Apart from consideration of cases by way of supervision and upon newly discovered evidences, the Presidium of the Supreme Court considers and hears issues relating to the organisation of activities of judicial chambers, examines materials of the studies and generalisation of judicial practice, analyses judicial statistics, assists lower courts in correct application of the legislation.

Judicial chambers.

There are three chambers in the structure of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation: Judicial Chamber on Civil Cases; Judicial Chamber on Criminal Cases; and Military Chamber. Within the limits of their powers they consider cases as courts of first instances; in the order of cassation; by way of supervision and on newly discovered evidence, study and generalise judicial practice, analyse judicial statistics.

The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation is assisted in exercising its powers by several offices, departments and other structural units.

At present the Supreme Court has initiated establishment of the all-Russian system of administrative justice. The appropriate draft of a federal law has already been presented to the State Duma.

Administrative courts.

Competence of administrative courts will include appeals and complaints by citizens against unlawful actions of the officials of different levels, normative acts issued by ministries, departments, President’s decrees, Government decisions, acts promulgated by the Chambers of Parliament, laws of the subjects of the Russian Federation. Besides, administrative courts will consider cases on violations of electoral and some tax laws and disputes between bodies of state power.

The basic aspect of these new courts, according to the main concept, is to make administrative courts independent of the state bodies. That is why it has been decided that their territorial structure will be different from that of courts of general jurisdiction when the courts traditionally are established according to the existing administrative - territorial division of the country.

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SUPREME ARBITRATION COURT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Under Article 127 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation is the supreme judicial body competent to settle economic disputes and other cases examined by arbitration courts, to exercise judicial supervision over their activity and to provide explanations of court proceedings. The Supreme Arbitration Court is part of the country's uniform judicial system as well as the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.

The arbitration courts are specialized courts for settling property and commercial disputes between enterprises. They as well consider claims of businessmen to proclaim acts of state bodies which infringe their rights and violate their lawful interests null an void. These are tax, land and other disputes arising from administrative, financial and other legal relations. The arbitration courts consider cases with foreign parties participation.

At present, the activity of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation is regulated by the Federal constitutional law «On the arbitration courts in the Russian Federation» and the Arbitration procedural code of the Russian Federation, both of which were promulgated on April 5, 1995, as well as the Federal constitutional law «On the judicial system of the Russian Federation» dated 23 October 1996.

The Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation operates through its constituent parts:

the Plenum of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation,

the Presidium of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation, the College of Judges empowered to consider disputes arising from civil and other legal relations; the College of judges empowered to consider disputes arising from administrative legal relations; judicial panels.

The Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation acts as court of first instance where specific categories of cases are concerned, including the claims of invalidity of non-normative acts endorsed by the President of the Russian Federation, the Federation Council and the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation, as well as economic disputes between the Russian Federation and its constituent parts or between constituent parts of the Russian Federation.

The most important task is to insure the uniform understanding and implementation of the legislation in the sphere of economic relations by all arbitration courts. The fulfilment of this task is exercised by means of studying and generalizing of the judicial practice and working out of explanations and interpretation of the legal acts by the Plenum or by the Presidium of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation.

The Plenum of the Supreme Arbitration Court is made up of the Chairman, deputy Chairman and the judges of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation. Representatives of other branches of the judicial branch of power, the legislative and executive branches of power, scientific institutions and rank-and-file citizens may take part in meetings of the Plenum. It is empowered to decide on legislative initiative, on appeals to the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation to rule on the constitutionality of laws, normative legal acts and agreements, it also endorses the rules of procedure of arbitration courts.

The Colleges of Judges of the Supreme Arbitration Court hear cases in first instance, study and generalize judicial practice, work out proposals for perfecting laws and normative legal acts, as well as exercise other powers in keeping with the rules of procedure.

Law entrusts the Supreme Arbitration Court with the provision of organizational support of the activity of the arbitration courts, the selection and training of would-be judges, the organization of advanced training and upgrading of skills and qualification of judges and personnel of arbitration courts, the financing of arbitration courts.

The Council of Chairmen of arbitration courts operates within the framework of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation as a consultative body which considers questions relating to its organizational, personnel and financial activity. A Scientific-advisory Council is formed under the Supreme Arbitration Court to prepare theoretically-substantiated recommendations on matters relating to the formulation of judicial practice and other normative acts and to work out proposals for their improvement. The Council is made up of sections dealing with procedural legislation, administrative law, civil law, and international private law.

For the purpose of ensuring full and independent administration of justice in compliance with federal laws, the financing of the system of arbitration courts is provided from the resources of the federal budget. A separate line in the federal budget provides for the spending on the maintenance of the arbitration courts.

The monthly "Vestnik Vysshego Arbitrazhnogo Suda Rossijskoi Federatsii" (The Herald of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation) is the official edition of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation.

(Endereço na Internet: http://www.arbitr.ru/eng/index.htm)

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Escola Histórica do Direito.

Savigny expôs pela primeira vez os princípios do que veio a ser a chamada Escola Histórica, no folheto intitulado "Da vocação do nosso século para a legislação e a jurisprudência" (1814), com o qual respondeu ao jurista Thibaut, autor de um escrito intitulado "Da necessidade de um Direito Civil para a Alemanha", onde defendia a codificação daquele direito. Para Savigny as leis imobilizam o direito, o qual é produto de uma longa evolução, revelada pelo costume, dependente da consciência popular. Com a complexidade do direito, surgem os juristas, que têm por função descobrir esse direito e formulá-lo. A escola surgiu como reação contra o direito natural, racionalista, quis fazer do direito romano uma legislação absoluta e utilizava conceitos não definidos por nenhum dos seus sequazes, como consciência coletiva e espírito popular. Mas teve o grande mérito de aplicar, ainda antes de Darwin, o conceito de evolução no estudo do direito. Os grandes discípulos de Savigny foram Puchta e Stahl. (ENCICLOPÉDIA JURÍDICA ELETRÔNICA LEIB SOIBELMAN)